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Fulltext Contaminating viral sequences in high-throughput sequencing viromics: a linkage study of 700 sequencing libraries

Asplund M, Kjartansdóttir KR, Mollerup S, Vinner L, Fridholm H, Herrera JAR, et al.

Clin Microbiol Infect, 2019 Oct;25(10):1277-1285.
PMID: 31059795 DOI: 10.1016/j.cmi.2019.04.028

OBJECTIVES: Sample preparation for high-throughput sequencing (HTS) includes treatment with various laboratory components, potentially carrying viral nucleic acids, the extent of which has not been thoroughly investigated. Our aim was to systematically examine a diverse repertoire of laboratory components used to prepare samples for HTS in order to identify contaminating viral sequences.
METHODS: A total of 322 samples of mainly human origin were analysed using eight protocols, applying a wide variety of laboratory components. Several samples (60% of human specimens) were processed using different protocols. In total, 712 sequencing libraries were investigated for viral sequence contamination.
RESULTS: Among sequences showing similarity to viruses, 493 were significantly associated with the use of laboratory components. Each of these viral sequences had sporadic appearance, only being identified in a subset of the samples treated with the linked laboratory component, and some were not identified in the non-template control samples. Remarkably, more than 65% of all viral sequences identified were within viral clusters linked to the use of laboratory components.
CONCLUSIONS: We show that high prevalence of contaminating viral sequences can be expected in HTS-based virome data and provide an extensive list of novel contaminating viral sequences that can be used for evaluation of viral findings in future virome and metagenome studies. Moreover, we show that detection can be problematic due to stochastic appearance and limited non-template controls. Although the exact origin of these viral sequences requires further research, our results support laboratory-component-linked viral sequence contamination of both biological and synthetic origin.

Matched MeSH terms: Metagenomics/methods*
Fulltext An efficient and robust laboratory workflow and tetrapod database for larger scale environmental DNA studies

Axtner J, Crampton-Platt A, Hörig LA, Mohamed A, Xu CCY, Yu DW, et al.

Gigascience, 2019 Apr 01;8(4).
PMID: 30997489 DOI: 10.1093/gigascience/giz029

BACKGROUND: The use of environmental DNA for species detection via metabarcoding is growing rapidly. We present a co-designed lab workflow and bioinformatic pipeline to mitigate the 2 most important risks of environmental DNA use: sample contamination and taxonomic misassignment. These risks arise from the need for polymerase chain reaction (PCR) amplification to detect the trace amounts of DNA combined with the necessity of using short target regions due to DNA degradation.
FINDINGS: Our high-throughput workflow minimizes these risks via a 4-step strategy: (i) technical replication with 2 PCR replicates and 2 extraction replicates; (ii) using multi-markers (12S,16S,CytB); (iii) a "twin-tagging," 2-step PCR protocol; and (iv) use of the probabilistic taxonomic assignment method PROTAX, which can account for incomplete reference databases. Because annotation errors in the reference sequences can result in taxonomic misassignment, we supply a protocol for curating sequence datasets. For some taxonomic groups and some markers, curation resulted in >50% of sequences being deleted from public reference databases, owing to (i) limited overlap between our target amplicon and reference sequences, (ii) mislabelling of reference sequences, and (iii) redundancy. Finally, we provide a bioinformatic pipeline to process amplicons and conduct PROTAX assignment and tested it on an invertebrate-derived DNA dataset from 1,532 leeches from Sabah, Malaysia. Twin-tagging allowed us to detect and exclude sequences with non-matching tags. The smallest DNA fragment (16S) amplified most frequently for all samples but was less powerful for discriminating at species rank. Using a stringent and lax acceptance criterion we found 162 (stringent) and 190 (lax) vertebrate detections of 95 (stringent) and 109 (lax) leech samples.
CONCLUSIONS: Our metabarcoding workflow should help research groups increase the robustness of their results and therefore facilitate wider use of environmental and invertebrate-derived DNA, which is turning into a valuable source of ecological and conservation information on tetrapods.

Matched MeSH terms: Metagenomics/methods*
Fulltext Resistance and resilience of small-scale recirculating aquaculture systems (RAS) with or without algae to pH perturbation

Mohamed Ramli N, Giatsis C, Md Yusoff F, Verreth J, Verdegem M

PLoS One, 2018;13(4):e0195862.
PMID: 29659617 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0195862

The experimental set-up of this study mimicked recirculating aquaculture systems (RAS) where water quality parameters such as dissolved oxygen, pH, temperature, and turbidity were controlled and wastes produced by fish and feeding were converted to inorganic forms. A key process in the RAS was the conversion of ammonia to nitrite and nitrite to nitrate through nitrification. It was hypothesized that algae inclusion in RAS would improve the ammonia removal from the water; thereby improving RAS water quality and stability. To test this hypothesis, the stability of the microbiota community composition in a freshwater RAS with (RAS+A) or without algae (RAS-A) was challenged by introducing an acute pH drop (from pH 7 to 4 during three hours) to the system. Stigeoclonium nanum, a periphytic freshwater microalga was used in this study. No significant effect of the algae presence was found on the resistance to the acute pH drop on ammonia conversion to nitrite and nitrite conversion to nitrate. Also the resilience of the ammonia conversion to the pH drop disruption was not affected by the addition of algae. This could be due to the low biomass of algae achieved in the RAS. However, with regard to the conversion step of nitrite to nitrate, RAS+A was significantly more resilient than RAS-A. In terms of overall bacterial communities, the composition and predictive function of the bacterial communities was significantly different between RAS+A and RAS-A.

Matched MeSH terms: Metagenomics/methods
Fulltext Population Genomics of an Anadromous Hilsa Shad Tenualosa ilisha Species across Its Diverse Migratory Habitats: Discrimination by Fine-Scale Local Adaptation

Asaduzzaman M, Igarashi Y, Wahab MA, Nahiduzzaman M, Rahman MJ, Phillips MJ, et al.

Genes (Basel), 2019 12 30;11(1).
PMID: 31905942 DOI: 10.3390/genes11010046

The migration of anadromous fish in heterogenic environments unceasingly imposes a selective pressure that results in genetic variation for local adaptation. However, discrimination of anadromous fish populations by fine-scale local adaptation is challenging because of their high rate of gene flow, highly connected divergent population, and large population size. Recent advances in next-generation sequencing (NGS) have expanded the prospects of defining the weakly structured population of anadromous fish. Therefore, we used NGS-based restriction site-associated DNA (NextRAD) techniques on 300 individuals of an anadromous Hilsa shad (Tenualosa ilisha) species, collected from nine strategic habitats, across their diverse migratory habitats, which include sea, estuary, and different freshwater rivers. The NextRAD technique successfully identified 15,453 single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) loci. Outlier tests using the FST OutFLANK and pcadapt approaches identified 74 and 449 SNPs (49 SNPs being common), respectively, as putative adaptive loci under a divergent selection process. Our results, based on the different cluster analyses of these putatively adaptive loci, suggested that local adaptation has divided the Hilsa shad population into two genetically structured clusters, in which marine and estuarine collection sites were dominated by individuals of one genetic cluster and different riverine collection sites were dominated by individuals of another genetic cluster. The phylogenetic analysis revealed that all the riverine populations of Hilsa shad were further subdivided into the north-western riverine (turbid freshwater) and the north-eastern riverine (clear freshwater) ecotypes. Among all of the putatively adaptive loci, only 36 loci were observed to be in the coding region, and the encoded genes might be associated with important biological functions related to the local adaptation of Hilsa shad. In summary, our study provides both neutral and adaptive contexts for the observed genetic divergence of Hilsa shad and, consequently, resolves the previous inconclusive findings on their population genetic structure across their diverse migratory habitats. Moreover, the study has clearly demonstrated that NextRAD sequencing is an innovative approach to explore how dispersal and local adaptation can shape genetic divergence of non-model anadromous fish that intersect diverse migratory habitats during their life-history stages.

Matched MeSH terms: Metagenomics/methods*
Fulltext The gut virome in two indigenous populations from Malaysia

Lee CZ, Zoqratt MZHM, Phipps ME, Barr JJ, Lal SK, Ayub Q, et al.

Sci Rep, 2022 Feb 03;12(1):1824.
PMID: 35115615 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-022-05656-3

The human gut contains a complex microbiota dominated by bacteriophages but also containing other viruses and bacteria and fungi. There are a growing number of techniques for the extraction, sequencing, and analysis of the virome but currently no standardized protocols. This study established an effective workflow for virome analysis to investigate the virome of stool samples from two understudied ethnic groups from Malaysia: the Jakun and Jehai Orang Asli. By using the virome extraction and analysis workflow with the Oxford Nanopore Technology, long-read sequencing successfully captured close to full-length viral genomes. The virome composition of the two indigenous Malaysian communities were remarkably different from those found in other parts of the world. Additionally, plant viruses found in the viromes of these individuals were attributed to traditional food-seeking methods. This study establishes a human gut virome workflow and extends insights into the healthy human gut virome, laying the groundwork for comparative studies.

Matched MeSH terms: Metagenomics/methods
Fulltext Discovery of Known and Novel Viruses in Wild and Cultivated Blueberry in Florida through Viral Metagenomic Approaches

Saad N, Olmstead JW, Varsani A, Polston JE, Jones JB, Folimonova SY, et al.

Viruses, 2021 Jun 18;13(6).
PMID: 34207047 DOI: 10.3390/v13061165

Southern highbush blueberry (interspecific hybrids of Vaccinium corymbosum L.) is cultivated near wild V. corymbosum as well as closely related species in Florida, USA. The expansion of blueberry cultivation into new areas in Florida and deployment of new cultivars containing viruses can potentially increase the diversity of viruses in wild and cultivated V. corymbosum. In this study, viral diversity in wild and cultivated blueberries (V. corymbosum) is described using a metagenomic approach. RNA viromes from V. corymbosum plants collected from six locations (two cultivated and four wild) in North Central Florida were generated by high throughput sequencing (HTS) and analyzed using a bioinformatic analysis pipeline. De novo assembled contigs obtained from viromes of both commercial and wild sites produced sequences with similarities to plant virus species from a diverse range of families (Amalgaviridae, Caulimoviridae, Endornaviridae, Ophioviridae, Phenuiviridae, and Virgaviridae). In addition, this study has enabled the identification of blueberry latent virus (BlLV) and blueberry mosaic associated ophiovirus (BlMaV) for the first time in Florida, as well as a tentative novel tepovirus (blueberry virus T) (BlVT) in blueberry. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first study that compares viral diversity in wild and cultivated blueberry using a metagenomic approach.

Matched MeSH terms: Metagenomics/methods*
Fulltext Gut microbiota composition during infancy and subsequent behavioural outcomes

Loughman A, Ponsonby AL, O'Hely M, Symeonides C, Collier F, Tang MLK, et al.

EBioMedicine, 2020 Feb;52:102640.
PMID: 32062351 DOI: 10.1016/j.ebiom.2020.102640

BACKGROUND: Despite intense interest in the relationship between gut microbiota and brain development, longitudinal data from human studies are lacking. This study aimed to investigate the relationship between the composition of gut microbiota during infancy and subsequent behavioural outcomes.
METHODS: A subcohort of 201 children with behavioural outcome measures was identified within a longitudinal, Australian birth-cohort study. The faecal microbiota were analysed at 1, 6, and 12 months of age. Behavioural outcomes were measured at 2 years of age.
FINDINGS: In an unselected birth cohort, we found a clear association between decreased normalised abundance of Prevotella in faecal samples collected at 12 months of age and increased behavioural problems at 2 years, in particular Internalizing Problem scores. This association appeared independent of multiple potentially confounding variables, including maternal mental health. Recent exposure to antibiotics was the best predictor of decreased Prevotella.
INTERPRETATION: Our findings demonstrate a strong association between the composition of the gut microbiota in infancy and subsequent behavioural outcomes; and support the importance of responsible use of antibiotics during early life.
FUNDING: This study was funded by the National Health and Medical Research Council of Australia (1082307, 1147980, 1129813), The Murdoch Children's Research Institute, Barwon Health, Deakin University, Perpetual Trustees, and The Shepherd Foundation. The funders had no involvement in the data collection, analysis or interpretation, trial design, recruitment or any other aspect pertinent to the study.

Matched MeSH terms: Metagenomics/methods
Morphometric, Behavioral, and Genomic Evidence for a New Orangutan Species

Nater A, Mattle-Greminger MP, Nurcahyo A, Nowak MG, de Manuel M, Desai T, et al.

Curr Biol, 2017 Nov 20;27(22):3487-3498.e10.
PMID: 29103940 DOI: 10.1016/j.cub.2017.09.047

Six extant species of non-human great apes are currently recognized: Sumatran and Bornean orangutans, eastern and western gorillas, and chimpanzees and bonobos [1]. However, large gaps remain in our knowledge of fine-scale variation in hominoid morphology, behavior, and genetics, and aspects of great ape taxonomy remain in flux. This is particularly true for orangutans (genus: Pongo), the only Asian great apes and phylogenetically our most distant relatives among extant hominids [1]. Designation of Bornean and Sumatran orangutans, P. pygmaeus (Linnaeus 1760) and P. abelii (Lesson 1827), as distinct species occurred in 2001 [1, 2]. Here, we show that an isolated population from Batang Toru, at the southernmost range limit of extant Sumatran orangutans south of Lake Toba, is distinct from other northern Sumatran and Bornean populations. By comparing cranio-mandibular and dental characters of an orangutan killed in a human-animal conflict to those of 33 adult male orangutans of a similar developmental stage, we found consistent differences between the Batang Toru individual and other extant Ponginae. Our analyses of 37 orangutan genomes provided a second line of evidence. Model-based approaches revealed that the deepest split in the evolutionary history of extant orangutans occurred ∼3.38 mya between the Batang Toru population and those to the north of Lake Toba, whereas both currently recognized species separated much later, about 674 kya. Our combined analyses support a new classification of orangutans into three extant species. The new species, Pongo tapanuliensis, encompasses the Batang Toru population, of which fewer than 800 individuals survive. VIDEO ABSTRACT.

Matched MeSH terms: Metagenomics/methods
Fulltext Using metabarcoding to compare the suitability of two blood-feeding leech species for sampling mammalian diversity in North Borneo

Drinkwater R, Schnell IB, Bohmann K, Bernard H, Veron G, Clare E, et al.

Mol Ecol Resour, 2019 Jan;19(1):105-117.
PMID: 30225935 DOI: 10.1111/1755-0998.12943

The application of high-throughput sequencing (HTS) for metabarcoding of mixed samples offers new opportunities in conservation biology. Recently, the successful detection of prey DNA from the guts of leeches has raised the possibility that these, and other blood-feeding invertebrates, might serve as useful samplers of mammals. Yet little is known about whether sympatric leech species differ in their feeding preferences, and whether this has a bearing on their relative suitability for monitoring local mammalian diversity. To address these questions, we collected spatially matched samples of two congeneric leech species Haemadipsa picta and Haemadipsa sumatrana from lowland rainforest in Borneo. For each species, we pooled ~500 leeches into batches of 10 individuals, performed PCR to target a section of the mammalian 16S rRNA locus and undertook sequencing of amplicon libraries using an Illumina MiSeq. In total, we identified sequences from 14 mammalian genera, spanning nine families and five orders. We found greater numbers of detections, and higher diversity of OTUs, in H. picta compared with H. sumatrana, with rodents only present in the former leech species. However, comparison of samples from across the landscape revealed no significant difference in mammal community composition between the leech species. We therefore suggest that H. picta is the more suitable iDNA sampler in this degraded Bornean forest. We conclude that the choice of invertebrate sampler can influence the detectability of different mammal groups and that this should be accounted for when designing iDNA studies.

Matched MeSH terms: Metagenomics/methods*
Fulltext Airway "Resistotypes" and Clinical Outcomes in Bronchiectasis

Mac Aogáin M, Ivan FX, Jaggi TK, Richardson H, Shoemark A, Narayana JK, et al.

Am J Respir Crit Care Med, 2024 Jul 01;210(1):47-62.
PMID: 38271608 DOI: 10.1164/rccm.202306-1059OC

Rationale: Chronic infection and inflammation shapes the airway microbiome in bronchiectasis. Utilizing whole-genome shotgun metagenomics to analyze the airway resistome provides insight into interplay between microbes, resistance genes, and clinical outcomes. Objectives: To apply whole-genome shotgun metagenomics to the airway microbiome in bronchiectasis to highlight a diverse pool of antimicrobial resistance genes: the "resistome," the clinical significance of which remains unclear. Methods: Individuals with bronchiectasis were prospectively recruited into cross-sectional and longitudinal cohorts (n = 280), including the international multicenter cross-sectional Cohort of Asian and Matched European Bronchiectasis 2 (CAMEB 2) study (n = 251) and two independent cohorts, one describing patients experiencing acute exacerbation and a further cohort of patients undergoing Pseudomonas aeruginosa eradication treatment. Sputum was subjected to metagenomic sequencing, and the bronchiectasis resistome was evaluated in association with clinical outcomes and underlying host microbiomes. Measurements and Main Results: The bronchiectasis resistome features a unique resistance gene profile and increased counts of aminoglycoside, bicyclomycin, phenicol, triclosan, and multidrug resistance genes. Longitudinally, it exhibits within-patient stability over time and during exacerbations despite between-patient heterogeneity. Proportional differences in baseline resistome profiles, including increased macrolide and multidrug resistance genes, associate with shorter intervals to the next exacerbation, whereas distinct resistome archetypes associate with frequent exacerbations, poorer lung function, geographic origin, and the host microbiome. Unsupervised analysis of resistome profiles identified two clinically relevant "resistotypes," RT1 and RT2, the latter characterized by poor clinical outcomes, increased multidrug resistance, and P. aeruginosa. Successful targeted eradication in P. aeruginosa-colonized individuals mediated reversion from RT2 to RT1, a more clinically favorable resistome profile demonstrating reduced resistance gene diversity. Conclusions: The bronchiectasis resistome associates with clinical outcomes, geographic origin, and the underlying host microbiome. Bronchiectasis resistotypes link to clinical disease and are modifiable through targeted antimicrobial therapy.

Matched MeSH terms: Metagenomics/methods
Comparison of culture-independent and dependent approaches for identification of native arsenic-resistant bacteria and their potential use for arsenic bioremediation

Hamood Altowayti WA, Almoalemi H, Shahir S, Othman N

Ecotoxicol Environ Saf, 2020 Dec 01;205:111267.
PMID: 32992213 DOI: 10.1016/j.ecoenv.2020.111267

Arsenic is a common contaminant in gold mine soil and tailings. Microbes present an opportunity for bio-treatment of arsenic, since it is a sustainable and cost-effective approach to remove arsenic from water. However, the development of existing bio-treatment approaches depends on isolation of arsenic-resistant microbes from arsenic contaminated samples. Microbial cultures are commonly used in bio-treatment; however, it is not established whether the structure of the cultured isolates resembles the native microbial community from arsenic-contaminated soil. In this milieu, a culture-independent approach using Illumina sequencing technology was used to profile the microbial community in situ. This was coupled with a culture-dependent technique, that is, isolation using two different growth media, to analyse the microbial population in arsenic laden tailing dam sludge based on the culture-independent sequencing approach, 4 phyla and 8 genera were identified in a sample from the arsenic-rich gold mine. Firmicutes (92.23%) was the dominant phylum, followed by Proteobacteria (3.21%), Actinobacteria (2.41%), and Bacteroidetes (1.49%). The identified genera included Staphylococcus (89.8%), Pseudomonas (1.25), Corynebacterium (0.82), Prevotella (0.54%), Megamonas (0.38%) and Sphingomonas (0.36%). The Shannon index value (3.05) and Simpson index value (0.1661) indicated low diversity in arsenic laden tailing. The culture dependent method exposed significant similarities with culture independent methods at the phylum level with Firmicutes, Proteobacteria and Actinobacteria, being common, and Firmicutes was the dominant phylum whereas, at the genus level, only Pseudomonas was presented by both methods. It showed high similarities between culture independent and dependent methods at the phylum level and large differences at the genus level, highlighting the complementarity between the two methods for identification of the native population bacteria in arsenic-rich mine. As a result, the present study can be a resource on microbes for bio-treatment of arsenic in mining waste.

Matched MeSH terms: Metagenomics/methods*
Fulltext Global monitoring of antimicrobial resistance based on metagenomics analyses of urban sewage

Hendriksen RS, Munk P, Njage P, van Bunnik B, McNally L, Lukjancenko O, et al.

Nat Commun, 2019 03 08;10(1):1124.
PMID: 30850636 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-019-08853-3

Antimicrobial resistance (AMR) is a serious threat to global public health, but obtaining representative data on AMR for healthy human populations is difficult. Here, we use metagenomic analysis of untreated sewage to characterize the bacterial resistome from 79 sites in 60 countries. We find systematic differences in abundance and diversity of AMR genes between Europe/North-America/Oceania and Africa/Asia/South-America. Antimicrobial use data and bacterial taxonomy only explains a minor part of the AMR variation that we observe. We find no evidence for cross-selection between antimicrobial classes, or for effect of air travel between sites. However, AMR gene abundance strongly correlates with socio-economic, health and environmental factors, which we use to predict AMR gene abundances in all countries in the world. Our findings suggest that global AMR gene diversity and abundance vary by region, and that improving sanitation and health could potentially limit the global burden of AMR. We propose metagenomic analysis of sewage as an ethically acceptable and economically feasible approach for continuous global surveillance and prediction of AMR.

Matched MeSH terms: Metagenomics/methods
Diversity of microbiota associated with symptomatic and non-symptomatic bacterial wilt-diseased banana plants determined using 16S rRNA metagenome sequencing

Suhaimi NSM, Goh SY, Ajam N, Othman RY, Chan KG, Thong KL

World J Microbiol Biotechnol, 2017 Aug 21;33(9):168.
PMID: 28828756 DOI: 10.1007/s11274-017-2336-0

Banana is one of the most important fruits cultivated in Malaysia, and it provides many health benefits. However, bacterial wilt disease, which attacks bananas, inflicts major losses on the banana industry in Malaysia. To understand the complex interactions of the microbiota of bacterial wilt-diseased banana plants, we first determined the bacterial communities residing in the pseudostems of infected (symptomatic) and diseased-free (non-symptomatic) banana plants. We characterized the associated microorganisms using the targeted 16S rRNA metagenomics sequencing on the Illumina MiSeq platform. Taxonomic classifications revealed 17 and nine known bacterial phyla in the tissues of non-symptomatic and symptomatic plants, respectively. Cyanobacteria and Proteobacteria (accounted for more than 99% of the 16S rRNA gene fragments) were the two most abundant phyla in both plants. The five major genera found in both plant samples were Ralstonia, Sphingomonas, Methylobacterium, Flavobacterium, and Pseudomonas. Ralstonia was more abundant in symptomatic plant (59% out of the entire genera) as compared to those in the non-symptomatic plant (only 36%). Our data revealed that 102 bacterial genera were only assigned to the non-symptomatic plant. Overall, this study indicated that more diverse and abundant microbiota were associated with the non-symptomatic bacterial wilt-diseased banana plant as compared to the symptomatic plant. The higher diversity of endophytic microbiota in the non-symptomatic banana plant could be an indication of pathogen suppression which delayed or prevented the disease expression. This comparative study of the microbiota in the two plant conditions might provide caveats for potential biological control strategies.

Matched MeSH terms: Metagenomics/methods*
From the High Arctic to the Equator: Do Soil Metagenomes Differ According to Our Expectations?

Kerfahi D, Tripathi BM, Dong K, Kim M, Kim H, Ferry Slik JW, et al.

Microb Ecol, 2019 Jan;77(1):168-185.
PMID: 29882154 DOI: 10.1007/s00248-018-1215-z

Comparing the functional gene composition of soils at opposite extremes of environmental gradients may allow testing of hypotheses about community and ecosystem function. Here, we were interested in comparing how tropical microbial ecosystems differ from those of polar climates. We sampled several sites in the equatorial rainforest of Malaysia and Brunei, and the high Arctic of Svalbard, Canada, and Greenland, comparing the composition and the functional attributes of soil biota between the two extremes of latitude, using shotgun metagenomic Illumina HiSeq2000 sequencing. Based upon "classical" views of how tropical and higher latitude ecosystems differ, we made a series of predictions as to how various gene function categories would differ in relative abundance between tropical and polar environments. Results showed that in some respects our predictions were correct: the polar samples had higher relative abundance of dormancy related genes, and lower relative abundance of genes associated with respiration, and with metabolism of aromatic compounds. The network complexity of the Arctic was also lower than the tropics. However, in various other respects, the pattern was not as predicted; there were no differences in relative abundance of stress response genes or in genes associated with secondary metabolism. Conversely, CRISPR genes, phage-related genes, and virulence disease and defense genes, were unexpectedly more abundant in the Arctic, suggesting more intense biotic interaction. Also, eukaryote diversity and bacterial diversity were higher in the Arctic of Svalbard compared to tropical Brunei, which is consistent with what may expected from amplicon studies in terms of the higher pH of the Svalbard soil. Our results in some respects confirm expectations of how tropical versus polar nature may differ, and in other respects challenge them.

Matched MeSH terms: Metagenomics/methods

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