Air pollutant emissions caused by receiving international industrial transfer in Southeast Asian developing countries from 1990 to 2018

Receiving international industrial transfer (mainly foreign direct investment, FDI) is extremely important for economic development but also brings negative environmental impacts for Southeast Asian developing countries (SEADCs). Due to relatively low labor costs and large market potential, SEADCs have become an attractive destination for industrial transfer after China, while studies were far from sufficient on the associated air pollutant emissions that would worsen air quality and threaten human health. We develop an exploratory framework to estimate the long-term trends of relevant air pollutant emissions in eight major SEADCs, including Cambodia, Indonesia, Laos, Malaysia, Myanmar, Philippines, Thailand, and Vietnam. During 1990-2018, the emissions generally show a fluctuating upward trend and increased significantly in Cambodia, Laos, Philippines, and Vietnam. The total emissions of CO, NMVOC, SO2, NOX, PM2.5, and NH3 from the eight SEADCs increased from 19.0, 4.3, 3.6, 1.5, 0.5, and 0.4 kilotons (kt) to 391.6, 260.9, 271.1, 182.4, 48.4, and 12.2 kt, respectively. The emission growth in almost all SEADCs accelerated after 2008 and faster than FDI growth. The disparities in emissions among SEADCs basically grew first and then declined to a level lower than that of 1990, but generally exceeded the disparities in FDI. Productivity gain and emission intensity decrease primarily caused the emission growth and reduction, respectively. Relatively small reductions in emission intensity are found for NOX and SO2. In general, most SEADCs have utilized FDI for economic development without sufficient efforts on air pollutant emission controls. Our outcomes can inform the formulation and optimization of relevant policies reconciling economic development and air quality improvement in SEADCs.