A highly efficient protocol for regeneration of Carica papaya L. cv. Eksotika somatic embryos from immature zygotic embryos was developed. This study was designed to overcome the obstacles in regeneration of somatic embryos from immature zygotic embryos of "Eksotika", especially problems associated with formation of better root quality and callus formation at the base of somatic embryos. Somatic embryos were generated by incubation of immature zygotic embryos in half-strength salt Murashige and Skoog (MS) medium with full-strength vitamins supplemented with 7.5 mg L-1 2,4-D, 100 mg L-1 L-glutamine, 50 mg L-1myo-inositol, 45 mg L-1 adenine sulphate, 0.33% gelrite, and 6% sucrose, followed by transfer to maturation medium consisting of ½ MS medium supplemented with 5 mg L-1 phloroglucinol, 100 mg L-1 L-glutamine, 100 mg L-1myo-inositol, 68 mg L-1 adenine sulphate, 0.38% gelrite, and 3% sucrose. After that, well-formed somatic embryos were transferred to MS medium containing 3% sucrose and 0.8% agar for shoot production. The embryos were elongated in MS medium supplemented with 1 mg L-1 gibberellic acid, 0.5 mg L-1 indole-3-butyric acid, 100 mg L-1myo-inositol, and 3.76 mg L-1 riboflavin. Root regeneration was achieved on MS medium containing 7.9 mg L-1 phloroglucinol and supported with vermiculite after 4 days of cultivation on ½ MS medium with 2 mg L-1 indole-3-butyric acid. After the rooting phase, in vitro plantlets were acclimatized in peat moss soil.
Banana is one of the most important food crops after rice, wheat and corn around the world. It is susceptible to a wide spectrum of non-infectious problems such as abiotic stresses resulting in restricting growth and production. Studies were conducted to determine the effects of four salinity levels (0.17 (control), 3.0, 6.0, and 9.0 dS m-1) on morphological characteristics of four banana cultivars at vegetative growth stage. Banana cultivars from the Cavendish group (Williams, Malindi) and plantains group (FHIA18 and Diwan) were grown in 61 x 76 cm polyethylene bags filled with soil mixture comprising of top soil, sand and peat moss (3:1:2 v/v), with pH ranging from 6 - 6.5 and EC 0.02 mScm-1. The experiment was carried out under a rain-shelter in split-plot design with three replicates. Plants were irrigated manually. Data were collected at 3, 6 and 9 months after transplanting. The results revealed that, the number of leaves, stem height, stem girth and total leaf area were significantly affected by salinity, variety and plant age. Significant interaction was also found between salinity and variety, salinity and plant age, as well as variety and plant age. The morphological characteristics of banana were negatively affected by higher salinity levels (6.0 and 9.0 dS m-1). Under similar salinity level, cultivar Malindi had higher number of leaves, stem height, stem girth and total leaf area as compared to cultivar Williams. Among plantains banana, cultivar FHIA18 was more tolerance to high salinity levels than Diwan cultivar, while Malindi from Cavendish group shows high salt tolerant than Williams. Therefore cultivars Malindi and FHIA18 could be grown in arid and semiarid environment depend on their tolerance to high salinity level above 1.0 dS m-1.
Drainage of peatlands and deforestation have led to large-scale fires in equatorial Asia, affecting regional air quality and global concentrations of greenhouse gases. Here we used several sources of satellite data with biogeochemical and atmospheric modeling to better understand and constrain fire emissions from Indonesia, Malaysia, and Papua New Guinea during 2000-2006. We found that average fire emissions from this region [128 +/- 51 (1sigma) Tg carbon (C) year(-1), T = 10(12)] were comparable to fossil fuel emissions. In Borneo, carbon emissions from fires were highly variable, fluxes during the moderate 2006 El Niño more than 30 times greater than those during the 2000 La Niña (and with a 2000-2006 mean of 74 +/- 33 Tg C yr(-1)). Higher rates of forest loss and larger areas of peatland becoming vulnerable to fire in drought years caused a strong nonlinear relation between drought and fire emissions in southern Borneo. Fire emissions from Sumatra showed a positive linear trend, increasing at a rate of 8 Tg C year(-2) (approximately doubling during 2000-2006). These results highlight the importance of including deforestation in future climate agreements. They also imply that land manager responses to expected shifts in tropical precipitation may critically determine the strength of climate-carbon cycle feedbacks during the 21st century.