A terrestrial gamma radiation survey for the state of Selangor, Kuala Lumpur and Putrajaya was conducted to obtain baseline data for environmental radiological health practices. Based on soil type, geological background and information from airborne survey maps, 95 survey points statistically representing the study area were determined. The measured doses varied according to geological background and soil types. They ranged from 17 nGy h(-1) to 500 nGy h(-1). The mean terrestrial gamma dose rate in air above the ground was 182 ± 81 nGy h(-1). This is two times higher than the average dose rate of terrestrial gamma radiation in Malaysia which is 92 nGy h(-1) (UNSCEAR 2000). An isodose map was produced to represent exposure rate from natural sources of terrestrial gamma radiation.
This paper presents the results of the evaluation of the uncertainty in measurement of the personal dose equivalent, Hp(10), at nine individual monitoring services (IMSs) in Asia and the Pacific region. Different types of passive dosemeters were type-tested according to the International Electrotechnical Commission 62387 requirements. The uncertainty in measurement was calculated using the Guide to the Expression of Uncertainty in Measurement approach. Expanded uncertainties ranged between 24 and 86% (average = 38%) for Hp(10) values around 1 mSv and between 14 and 40% (average = 27%) for doses around the annual dose limit, Hp(10) = 20 mSv. The expanded uncertainties were lower than the 1.5 factor in either direction proposed by the International Commission on Radiological Protection for doses near the relevant dose limits. This indicates an acceptable level of uncertainty for all participating IMSs. Uncertainty evaluation will help the IMSs to acknowledge the accuracy of their measurements.
As nuclear technology evolves, and continues to be used in various fields since its discovery less than a century ago, radiation safety has become a major concern to humans and the environment. Radiation monitoring plays a significant role in preventive radiological nuclear detection in nuclear facilities, hospitals, or in any activities associated with radioactive materials by acting as a tool to measure the risk of being exposed to radiation while reaping its benefit. Apart from in occupational settings, radiation monitoring is required in emergency responses to radiation incidents as well as outdoor radiation zones. Several radiation sensors have been developed, ranging from as simple as a Geiger-Muller counter to bulkier radiation systems such as the High Purity Germanium detector, with different functionality for use in different settings, but the inability to provide real-time data makes radiation monitoring activities less effective. The deployment of manned vehicles equipped with these radiation sensors reduces the scope of radiation monitoring operations significantly, but the safety of radiation monitoring operators is still compromised. Recently, the Internet of Things (IoT) technology has been introduced to the world and offered solutions to these limitations. This review elucidates a systematic understanding of the fundamental usage of the Internet of Drones for radiation monitoring purposes. The extension of essential functional blocks in IoT can be expanded across radiation monitoring industries, presenting several emerging research opportunities and challenges. This article offers a comprehensive review of the evolutionary application of IoT technology in nuclear and radiation monitoring. Finally, the security of the nuclear industry is discussed.
Labuan, Miri, Kundasang and Raub regions of Malaysia have very different geological formations and settings that could result in different levels of natural radioactivity. Hence, this study determines the influence of different geological formations on radioactivity in these locations using field measurements, petrology and geochemistry. A total of 141 gamma dose rates and 227 beta flux measurements were collected using Polimaster survey meters (PM1405) in these four regions. The gamma dose rate values range from 0.37 to 0.05 µSv/h with a mean value of 0.11 µSv/h. Beta flux values range from 3.46 to 0.12 CPS with a mean value of 0.57 CPS. Mineralogy and elemental composition of the different rock types were analysed using thin-section petrography, XRD, ICP and pXRF methods. Felsic igneous rocks such as syenite and granite have higher natural radioactivity and contain more radionuclide-bearing minerals such as apatite, zircon, allanite, K-feldspar, titanite, muscovite and biotite. Metamorphic rocks have the second highest natural radioactivity and contain fewer radioactive minerals. The natural radioactivity of sedimentary rocks mostly depends on their clay content. The gamma dose rate maps show that igneous and metamorphic regions around Raub have higher radioactivity compared to the sedimentary-dominated regions around Miri and Labuan. Annual effective dose (AED) and excess lifetime cancer risk (ELCR) were calculated to evaluate the potential health risk for inhabitants of these regions. Labuan and Miri are considered to be safe zones with respect to natural radioactivity as the results show little to no risk for the public, compared with the Raub region, which is medium to high risk.
Stratified sampling procedure was employed to collect a total of 40 samples; 2 from each stratum, measuring an approximate dimension of 3.25 km(2) of the actual sample site. Appropriate volumes were then evaporated and transferred into clean stainless steel planchets (ISO 9696 and ISO 9697). An eight channel gas-flow proportional counting system connected to a microprocessor loaded with a spreadsheet programme (Quarttro-Pro) and graphic programme (Multiplan) initially calibrated for efficiency was employed to count the background and the prepared samples. A mean efficiency of 33.44 and 41.24 % for the respective alpha and beta sources was obtained. A low background activity was also observed with a mean of 0.165 Bq for alpha and 1.119 Bq for beta. The gross alpha and beta activity concentrations in the water were found to range from 80 +/- 0.05 to 2300 +/- 0.41 Bq m(-3) and 120 +/- 0.08 to 4970 +/- 0.78 Bq m(-3), respectively. This clearly indicate areas of elevated alpha and beta activity concentrations of 37.5 and 47.5 %, respectively when compared with the International Commission for Radiological Protection (1991) maximum acceptable values of 500 Bq m(-3) for alpha and 1000 Bq m(-3) for beta.
Radon and progeny concentration measurements in various drink samples are intrinsically important for assessing the health risks resulting from daily consumption of these drinks. In this study the comparison between two Solid State Nuclear Track Detectors (SSNTDs), the CR-39 and the CN-85 has been conducted for the purpose of evaluating the radon concentration, annual effective dose, the rate of exhalation of radon and the effective radium content in thirty-two different samples of soft drink, water, and milk available in the local Iraq markets. The results showed that there are significant differences in the measurement results for the two detectors. The annual effective dose of the investigated samples is still below the limit of International Commission on Radiological Protection (ICRP) recommendation in the measurements of both detectors.
Bangladesh is a rapidly developing country, which is vulnerable to various types of pollution due to the large-scale industrial and associated human activities that might potentially affect the locally harvested foodstuffs. Therefore, the transfer factor is an essential tool to assess the safety of foodstuffs due to the presence of natural radioactivity in environmental matrix and/or strata. This is a first study of its kind conducted in a well-known region for mango farming in Bangladesh, measuring the uptake of naturally occurring radioactive materials (NORMs) by grass and mango from soil to assess the ingestion doses to humans. The HPGe gamma-ray detector was used to determine the concentrations of NORMs in samples of soil (20), grass (10), and mango (10), which were then used to calculate the transfer factors of soil to grass and soil to mango. Average activity concentrations of 226Ra, 232Th, and 40K in associated soil samples (47.27 ± 4.10, 64.49 ± 4.32, 421.60 ± 28.85) of mango and 226Ra and 232Th in associated soil samples (45.07 ± 3.93, 52.17 ± 3.95) of grass were found to exceed the world average values. The average transfer factors (TFs) for mango were obtained in the order of 40K(0.80) > 226Ra (0.61) > 232Th (0.31), and for grass, it shows the order of 40K (0.78) > 232Th (0.64) > 226Ra (0.56). However, a few values (3 mango samples and 3 grass samples) of the estimated TFs exceeded the recommended limits. Moreover, Bangladesh lacks the transfer factors for most of the food crops; therefore, calculation of TFs in the major agricultural products is required all over Bangladesh, especially the foodstuffs produced near the Rooppur Nuclear Power Plant, which is scheduled to be commissioned in 2023.
The plant acts as an important route for the transfer of radionuclides from the soil to animals, leading to the transfer of radiation to human food products such as beef and milk. Therefore, the level of radioactivity in fodder plays a crucial role in deciding whether cattle may be allowed to graze in a certain area. In this study, the activities of 226Ra, 232Th and 40K were measured via gamma-ray spectrometry on different fodder samples, including napier leaves, rice straw, corn stalks, guinea grass, mixed pasture, palm oil leaves and palm kernel collected from Penang, Malaysia. Theoretical calculations were also conducted to estimate the levels of these radionuclides in caw's products (beef and milk), as well as their potential radiological impact on local consumers. On average, the annual effective dose due to ingestion of radionuclides in milk was 11.39 μSv y-1, whereas in beef it was 5.63 μSv y-1. These values are significantly lower than the worldwide average of 290 μSv y-1. Research confirmed that farmers' usage of the aforementioned feeds did not cause any radiation-related health risks.
The remote measurements of radiation level at an identified location, are not only important for
collecting data or monitoring radiation level per se, but also crucial for workers who deal with
radiation sources. A device for checking an on-site radiation level has been developed quite a
long time ago under the name of Geiger Muller and widely known as a Geiger counter. The
reading of the output can be seen on the device on-site and on real-time basis. Nowadays, with
the fast evolution of computer and networking technology, those reading not only can be read
real-time but also from a remote location that makes workers able to enter the risky area more
safely. The collected data reading also can be analyzed for predicting the future trending
pattern. The data is transferred from the monitoring devices to a server through a network. This
paper discusses about several critical issues on the design, implementation and deployment that
relates to the devices, interface programs, hardware and software that allow all parameters such
as radiation levels reading and the timestamp of the data-logging can be collected and stored in
a central storage for further processes. The compatibility issue with regards to technology
change from the previous system will also be discussed. The system has many advantages
compared to previous system and conventional method of doing the area monitoring in term of
sustainability and availability.
The objective of this study was to determine the gross alpha and gross beta activity concentrations from the different soil types found in the Kinta District, Perak, Malaysia. A total of 128 soil samples were collected and their dose rates were measured 1 m above the ground. Gross alpha and gross beta activity measurements were carried out using gas flow proportional counter, Tennelec Series 5 LB5500 Automatic Low Background Counting System. The alpha activity concentration ranged from 15 to 9634 Bq kg(-1) with a mean value of 1558±121 Bq kg(-1). The beta activity concentration ranged from 142 to 6173 Bq kg(-1) with a mean value of 1112±32 Bq kg(-1). High alpha and beta activity concentrations are from the same soil type. The results of the analysis show a strong correlation between the gross alpha activity concentration and dose rate (R = 0.92). The data obtained can be used as a database for each soil type.
An extensive survey was carried out for gamma dose rates (GDRs) in the Mersing district, Johor, Malaysia. The average value of GDR measured in the district was found to be 140 nGy h(-1), in the range of 40-355 nGy h(-1). The mean weighted dose rate to the population, annual effective dose equivalent, collective effective dose equivalent, lifetime cancer risk were 0.836 mSv y(-1), 0.171 mSv, 1.18 × 10(1) man Sv y(-1) and 6.98 × 10(-4) Sv y, respectively. An isodose map was produced for the district. One way analysis of variance was used to test for differences due to different geological formations present in the Mersing District.
The studies of (137)Cs and (239+240)Pu distributions in surface seawater at South China Sea within the Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ) of Peninsular Malaysia were carried out in June 2008. The analysis results will serve as additional information to the expanded baseline data for Malaysia's marine environment. Thirty locations from extended study area were identified in the EEZ from which large volumes of surface seawater samples were collected. Different co-precipitation techniques were employed to concentrate cesium and plutonium separately. A known amount of (134)Cs and (242)Pu tracers were used as yield determinant. The precipitate slurry was collected and oven dried at 60(o)C for 1-2 days. Cesium precipitate was fine-ground and counted using gamma-ray spectrometry system at 661.62keV, while plutonium was separated from other radionuclides using anion exchange, electrodeposited and counted using alpha spectrometry. The activity concentrations of (137)Cs and (239+240)Pu were in the range of 3.40-5.89Bq/m(3) and 2.3-7.9mBq/m(3), respectively. The (239+240)Pu/(137)Cs ratios indicate that there are no new inputs of these radionuclides into the area.
Environmental terrestrial gamma radiation dose rates were measured throughout Melaka, Malaysia, over a period of two years, with the objective of establishing baseline data on the background radiation level. Results obtained are shown in tabular, graphic and cartographic form. The values of terrestrial gamma radiation dose rate vary significantly over different soil types and for different underlying geological characteristics present in the study area. The values ranged from 54 +/- 5 to 378 +/- 38 nGy h(-1). The highest terrestrial gamma dose rates were measured over soil types of granitic origin and in areas with underlying geological characteristics of an acid intrusive (undifferentiated) type. An isodose map of terrestrial gamma dose rate in Melaka was drawn by using the GIS application 'Arc View'. This was based on data collected using a NaI(Tl) scintillation detector survey meter. The measurements were taken at 542 locations. Three small 'hot spots' were found where the dose rates were more than 350 nGy h(-1). The mean dose rates in the main population areas in the mukims (parishes) of Bukit Katil, Sungai Udang, Batu Berendam, Bukit Baru and Bandar Melaka were 154 +/- 15, 161 +/- 16, 160 +/- 16, 175 +/- 18 and 176 +/- 18 nGy h(-1), respectively. The population-weighted mean dose rate throughout Melaka state is 172 +/- 17 nGy h(-1). This is lower than the geographical mean dose rate of 183 +/- 54 nGy h(-1). The lower value arises from the fact that most of the population lives in the central area of the state where the lithology is dominated by sedimentary rocks consisting of shale, mudstone, phyllite, slate, hornfels, sandstone and schist of Devonian origin which have lower associated dose rates. The mean annual effective dose to the population from outdoor terrestrial gamma radiation was estimated to be 0.21 mSv. This value is higher than the world average of 0.07 mSv.
Radiofrequency (RF) and microwave (MW) radiation exposures from the antennas of rooftop-mounted mobile telephone base stations have become a serious issue in recent years due to the rapidly evolving technologies in wireless telecommunication systems. In Malaysia, thousands of mobile telephone base stations have been erected all over the country, most of which are mounted on the rooftops. In view of public concerns, measurements of the RF/MW levels emitted by the base stations were carried out in this study. The values were compared with the exposure limits set by several organisations and countries. Measurements were performed at 200 sites around 47 mobile phone base stations. It was found that the RF/MW radiation from these base stations were well below the maximum exposure limits set by various agencies.
This study was aimed at providing the baseline data of terrestrial gamma dose rates and natural radioactivity to assess the corresponding health risk in the ambient environment of the Pahang State. Terrestrial gamma radiation (TGR) from 640 locations was measured with the mean value found to be 176 ± 5 nGy h(-1). Ninety-eight soil samples were analysed using a high-purity germanium detector (HPGe), and the mean concentrations of the radionuclides (226)Ra, (232)Th and (40)K are 110 ± 3, 151 ± 5 and 542 ± 51 Bq kg(-1), respectively.(226)Ra and (232)Th concentrations were found to be three times the world average, while that of (40)K is quite higher than the world average value. The acid-intrusive geological formation has the highest mean concentrations for (226)Ra (215 ± 6 Bq kg(-1)), (232)Th (384 ± 12 Bq kg(-1)) and (40)K (1564 ± 153 Bq kg(-1)). The radium equivalent activities (Req) and the external hazard index (Hex) for the various soil types were also calculated. Some of the soil types were found to have values exceeding the internationally recommended levels of 370 Bq kg(-1) and the unity value, respectively.
Nasarawa State is located in north central Nigeria and it is known as Nigeria's home of solid minerals. It is endowed with barite, copper, zinc, tantalite and granite. Continuous releases of mining waste and tailings into the biosphere may result in a build-up of radionuclides in air, water and soil. This work therefore aims to measure the activity concentration levels of primordial radionuclides in the soil/sediment samples collected from selected mines of the mining areas of Nasarawa State. The paper also assesses the radiological and radio ecological impacts of mining activities on the residents of mining areas and their environment. The activity concentrations of primordial radionuclides ((226)Ra, (232)Th and (40)K) in the surface soils/sediment samples were determined using sodium iodide-thallium gamma spectroscopy. Seven major mines were considered with 21 samples taken from each of the mines for radiochemistry analysis. The human health hazard assessment was conducted using regulatory methodologies set by the United Nations Scientific Committee on the Effects of Atomic Radiation, while the radio ecological impact assessment was conducted using the ERICA tool v. 1.2. The result shows that the activity concentrations of (40)K in the water ways of the Akiri copper and the Azara barite mines are 60 and 67% higher than the world average value for (40)K, respectively. In all mines, the annual effective dose rates (mSv y(-1)) were less than unity, and a maximum annual gonadal dose of 0.58 mSv y(-1) is received at the Akiri copper mine, which is almost twice the world average value for gonadal dose. The external hazard indices for all the mines were less than unity. Our results also show that mollusc-gastropod, insect larvae, mollusc-bivalve and zooplankton are the freshwater biotas with the highest dose rates ranging from 5 to 7 µGy h(-1). These higher dose rates could be associated with zinc and copper mining at Abuni and Akiri, respectively. The most exposed terrestrial reference organisms are lichen and bryophytes. In all cases, the radio ecological risks are not likely to be discernible. This paper presents a pioneer data for ecological risk from ionizing contaminants due to mining activity in Nasarawa State, Nigeria. Its methodology could be adopted for future work on radioecology of mining.
Radium concentrations in 470 samples of the various types of waste from oil and gas industries were analysed using gamma spectrometers. The results showed that the radium concentration varied within a wide range. The highest mean 226Ra and 228Ra concentrations of 114,300 and 130,120 Bq/kg, respectively, were measured in scales. Overall, 75% of the waste, mostly sludge and extraction residue lies within the normal range of radium concentration in soils of Malaysia. However, some platform sludge can have radium concentration up to 560 Bq/kg.
The activity concentrations of 226Ra, 232Th and 40K radionuclides from common building materials used by Malaysian people for construction purposes were studied using High-Purity Germanium (HPGe) detector. The measured activity concentrations of the aforementioned radionuclides range from 10 ± 1 Bq kg-1 (limestone) to 155 ± 61 Bq kg-1 (feldspar), 12 ± 3 Bq kg-1 (limestone) to 274 ± 8 Bq kg-1 (kaolin) and 62 ± 19 Bq kg-1 (limestone) to 1114 ± 20 Bq kg-1 (pottery stone) for 226Ra, 232Th and 40K, respectively. The measured activity concentrations of the natural radionuclides reported herein were found to be in accordance with other previous studies. In general, the activity concentration of the natural radionuclides revealed that all the determined values were below the recommended limit.