Scrub typhus is an endemic problem in Malaysia. Yet its diagnosis appears to depend heavily on the Wetl-Felix test as the more sophisticated diagnostic procedures are not available routinely. We therefore reviewed our experience with scrub typhus patients treated at the Melaka General Hospital from 1983 to April 1986, to identify those clinical features which are diagnostic of this rickettsial illness. Based on the clinical presentation of our patients and the dramatic response of scrub typhus to Doxycycline, we propose a clinical approach to diagnosis until more specific and cheap diagnostic procedures become available in our laboratories. Otherwise, this rickettsial illness will continue to be under-recognised.
A 34-year-old laboratory worker developed murine typhus after an accidental splashing of Rickettsia typhi over her right eye and lips. Indirect immunoperoxidase test showed a four-fold increase in titre to Rickettsia typhi. She responded well to doxycycline.
Sequential monitoring of 724 sera for antibodies to a neoantigen based on phenolic glycolipid-I (PGL-I) and native lipoarabinomannan (LAM) in 90 leprosy patients undergoing therapy in San Francisco was conducted. Untreated lepromatous patients frequently (91%) had significant antibodies to both moieties. Antibodies were less frequently found in tuberculoid patients (74% to neoantigen and 37% to LAM). In the first 3 years of treatment, average serum antibodies to both moieties fell significantly. Antibodies to LAM fell during each of the first 4 years of therapy, but decreasing antibody levels to the PGL-I neoantigen did not appear to fall consistently after the third year of treatment. A wide variation in the rate of fall of serum antibodies was noted. Sequential changes in the amounts of serum antibodies to the neoantigen and LAM in general paralleled one another but were at times discrepant. Both in San Francisco and Malaysia, skin-smear negative, long-term treated, lepromatous leprosy patients frequently harbored significant antibodies to both PGL-I and LAM.
Following the suggestion that it was possible that cases of melioidosis amongst those who had been exposed abroad in the past, might be escaping notice, 487 Royal Marines were examined by indirect haemagglutination studies. Four hundred and eleven of these subjects had served for variable times in areas where melioidosis has been known to occur in Indonesia and Malaya, between 1960 and 1974, occupied in activities in the jungle and paddy fields during which exposure to the disease was to be expected. No evidence of residual subclinical melioidosis was found and it seems unlikely that recrudescent disease will prove to be a problem in the future for English servicemen who have been in South East Asia.
Helicobacter pylori is one of the few remaining major pathogens that accompanied humans on their travels from Africa. A recently published study reports the unexpected finding of a low H. pylori prevalence among pregnant women in Zanzibar (Farag, T.H., Stolzfus, R.J., Khalfan, S.S., Tielsch, J.M., 2007. Unexpectedly low prevalence of Helicobacter pylori infection among pregnant women on Pemba Island, Zanzibar. Trans. R. Soc. Trop. Med. Hyg. 101). The apparent epidemiology of higher prevalence with higher socioeconomic status and decrease with age are unprecedented. As with many 'unexpected' events, a search of the literature reveals evidence of low prevalence populations in Java and Malaysia, with clues dating back to the mid-twentieth century. Why some populations apparently lost H. pylori infection remains an open question. However, the tools needed to resolve the dilemma are readily available and we hope investigators will soon rise to the challenge.
Using an indirect immunofluorescence technique, sera from 113 cynomolgus monkeys (Macaca fascicularis), trapped in Peninsular Malaysia, were screened for the presence of antibody to six prototype strains of Rickettsia tsutsugamushi combined into three polyvalent groupings: I--Karp, TA716, and TA763; II--Gilliam; and III--TA678 and TH1817. Fifteen percent (17/113) of the monkeys had antibody titers greater than or equal to 1:50 to one or more of the antigenic groups. Although a titer greater than or equal to 1:150 is generally considered indicative or prior Rickettsia tsutsugamushi infection, we selected a less than 1:25 titer as a conservative standard to insure non-infected animals. Using this criterion, 62 (55%) of the 113 monkeys were accepted for use in scrub typhus studies. The high prevalence of antibody to scrub typhus in the semi-arboreal cynomolgus monkey is in marked contrast to the low prevalence reported in the strictly arboreal silvered leaf monkeys (Presbytis cristatus). The results of this study indicate that cynomolgus monkeys should be rigorously screened for evidence of prior infection before they are included in experimental scrub typhus studies.
A simple adherence test to detect IgM antibodies in patients with typhoid is described. The test utilises the IgM-"capture" approach, in which the test serum is applied to microtitration plate wells previously coated with anti-human IgM, followed by application of a stained Salmonella typhi antigen suspension which shows adherence in positive cases. By this test, 58 (95%) of 61 sera from confirmed cases of typhoid possessed IgM antibodies to the H or O or both antigens of S. typhi. In patients for whom a diagnosis of typhoid was based only on a significant Widal-test titre, 31 (41%) of 76 sera had IgM antibodies to the H or O or both antigens of S. typhi. Some cross-reactivity of the IgM antibodies was detected, especially with the O antigens of S. paratyphi A and B. A total of 82 sera from non-typhoidal fevers (leptospirosis, typhus, dengue fever) showed no reactivity in this test. In normal sera there was no detectable IgM to the O antigen of S. typhi and only a small number (3.9%) had low levels of IgM to the H antigen. The significance and potential importance of this simple, sensitive, specific and economical test is discussed.
Two communities of Orang Asli (aborigines) in Peninsular Malaysia were observed for evidence of Rickettsia tsutsugamushi infection over periods of 1-8 mo. Sequential sera were examined for antibody by the indirect immunofluorescence test. The incidence of infection in the two self-selected populations in the two communities was calculated to be 3.9% per month and 3.2% per month.
An explanation was sought for the disparity between the low reported incidence of scrub typhus and the high prevalence of antibody to Rickettsia tsutsugamushi in the rural population of Malaysia. A combination of isolation of the organism, titration of antibody by indirect immunofluorescence, and the Weil-Felix test was used to confirm infections. Scrub typhus was found to be very common, causing 23% of all febrile illnesses at one hospital. The infection was particularly prevalent in oil-palm workers, causing an estimated 400 cases annually in a population of 10,000 people living on one plantation. The clinical syndrome, whether mild or severe, was difficult to distinguish from that due to other infections. Eschars, rashes and adenopathy were uncommon. When used to examine early sera, the Weil-Felix test failed to confirm the diagnosis in most infections.20
An indirect immunoperoxidase test was compared with an indirect fluorescent antibody test and the Weil-Felix OXK test for serodiagnosis of scrub typhus by measuring the rickettsial antigen specific activity of IgG, IgM, and whole globulin. Acute and convalescent sera from 50 Rickettsia tsutsugamushi isolate-positive scrub typhus patients and from 45 febrile patients diagnosed as having diseases other than scrub typhus were tested. The receiver operating characteristic for each test showed that the indirect immunoperoxidase and indirect fluorescent antibody tests were more sensitive and specific than the Weil-Felix test using convalescent and acute as well as paired sera. The indirect immunoperoxidase test showed no cross-reactivity when R. tsutsugamushi antigen was tested against sera collected from patients living outside the scrub typhus-endemic area with diseases other than scrub typhus. The indirect immunoperoxidase and indirect fluorescent antibody tests were comparable in measured response to R. tsutsugamushi, R. typhi, and TT-118 (spotted fever group) antigen. Thus the indirect immunoperoxidase test represents a sensitive, specific, reproducible, and practical semiquantitative test for rickettsial disease diagnosis.
A seroepidemiology study was done in response to the recent increase of Endemic Typhus cases diagnosed at University Hospital. The serosurvey was based on doctors' request for the Weil Felix (WF) or the Indirect Immunoperoxidase (IIP) test in Pyrexia of Unknown Origin (PUO) patients for the years 1991 to 1997. Over the 7 years, we found that the incidence of Endemic typhus is increasing with gender (male:female = 2:1), age (20-40 years) and race distribution (Indians > Malay > Chinese) that reflects socioeconomic circumstances. A commercially available ELISA dot assay [INDX (E2R3) Dip-S-Ticks], for the detection of antibodies against R. typhi was compared with the indirect immunoperoxidase test (IIP). The ELISA assay was done against 219 IIP tested sera. The Dip-S-Ticks was found to be comparable to the IIP with a sensitivity of 91.7% and specificity of 92.8% at cut-off titres of > 1:80 IIP.
An IgM dot-immunobinding assay (IgM-DIA) was developed for the diagnosis of scrub typhus infection. The whole cell antigens of Karp, Kato and Gilliam strains of Rickettsia tsutsugamushi were immobilized onto nitrocellulose paper and reacted with patients sera. The presence of IgM R. tsutsugamushi specific antibody in the patient sera could be detected by the observation of a visible brown dot on the nitrocellulose paper. The IgM-DIA has a sensitivity of 90.4% and specificity of 81.4% as compared to the indirect immunoperoxidase test. The IgM-DIA is rapid, simple, cost-effective, does not require microscope or incubator. It is recommended as a rapid screening test for the diagnosis of scrub typhus infection in the field or rural area within the hyperendemic region.
Brucellosis is a zoonotic disease which can be transmitted by direct or indirect contact with infected animal or their products. It is an important public health problem but little is known on brucellosis in the Malaysian population. The aim of this study was to determine the presence of Brucella antibodies using commercial Brucella IgG and IgM ELISA kits (Vircell, SL, Barcelona Spain). A total of 184 sera from suspected patients were received from 16 hospitals in Malaysia over the years 2004 to 2009. Only 10 serum samples (5.4%) were positive for Brucella antibodies in which 5 showed the presence of both IgM and IgG. Most of the positive patients were occupationally involved with animals. This study suggests the seroprevalance of brucellosis among individuals who have contact with infected animals in Malaysia is low.
A 20-year-old, previously healthy woman, presented with high fever, headache and myalgia 3 days after her return from a holiday in Southeast Asia. Laboratory data on admission demonstrated a pronounced increase in plasma creatinine, marked thrombocytopenia and moderately elevated liver aminotransferases. After having ruled out malaria, dengue fever was primarily suspected and supportive intravenous fluid therapy was initiated. Still, 1 day after admission, platelet counts dropped even further and she became anuric although she did not appear hypovolemic. On day 2 after admission, urine production commenced spontaneously and the patient slowly recovered. All laboratory test results had returned to normal approximately 2 months later. Serological analysis for dengue fever was negative. It turned out that the patient had been trekking in the jungle while in Thailand and we, therefore, analyzed serology for Leptospira spirochetes which was clearly positive. The patient was diagnosed with leptospirosis which is a serious condition associated with a high mortality when complicated by acute renal failure. Differential diagnoses in patients with acute renal failure and tropical infections are reviewed. The importance of early recognition of leptospirosis, and prompt treatment with antibiotics in suspected cases, is emphasized.
A case of respiratory infection in a child due to Chlamydia pneumoniae is reported. The diagnosis was made by the detection of chlamydial antigen in the tracheal secretion and a significant increase in C. pneumoniae antibody titre. The infection responded well to erythromycin therapy.
We compared a commercially available dot-blot immunoassay system with the indirect immunofluorescence assay (IFA) in tests of known negative and known positive sera from scrub typhus cases. Using a panel of 100 sera from patients with various rickettsial and nonrickettsial infections, we observed that the IFA was 99% specific and the dipstick assay was 98% specific. In tests of 91 sera (30 negative and 61 positive for scrub typhus antibodies) from a study of febrile patients in Malaysia, using the standard of an IFA titer < 1:64 as negative, an IFA titer > 1:128 as positive, and an IFA titer = 1:64 as either positive or negative (supported by clinical records), dipsticks were 83% specific and 90% sensitive. The quantitative correlation of the dipsticks to IFA titers was confirmed by significant differences in geometric means of inverse IFA titers corresponding to the number of positive dipstick spots (no dots = 8.5, one dot = 43.3, two dots = 206.7, and three dots = 676.9). The assay would enable physicians and public health workers who deal with patients to quickly diagnose and appropriately treat most cases of the disease, especially in areas of high prevalence where the proportion of false-positive results to true-positive results would be low.
The sensitivities and specificities of the indirect microimmunofluorescent antibody (IFA) and Weil-Felix (OXK) tests for scrub typhus were established for a range of titers using groups of diseased and control (other febrile illnesses) patients diagnosed by other methods. At a cut-off point of greater than or equal to 1:400, the IFA test was 0.96 specific, and at greater than or equal to 1:320, the OXK was 0.97 specific. Using either these highly specific levels of antibody or other rigorous diagnostic criteria (isolation or 4-fold rising titers), the prevalence of scrub typhus infection was determined to be 0.22 in an unselected population of febrile patients in a rural Malaysian hospital. Probability values (Pr) for the correct diagnosis of scrub typhus were then calculated from the specificity, sensitivity and prevalence determination for a range of titers. The Pr for an OXK titer of greater than or equal to 1:320 was 0.79, and the Pr for an IFA titer of greater than or equal to 1:400 was 0.78. When both these titers were present in a single specimen, the Pr increased to 0.96.