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  1. Fulltext A sensitive and rapid determination of zinc ion (Zn2+) using electrochemical sensor based on f-MWCNTs/CS/PB/AuE in drinking water
    Ringgit G, Siddiquee S, Saallah S, Mohamad Lal MT
    Sci Rep, 2022 Nov 03;12(1):18582.
    PMID: 36329094 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-022-21926-6
    An electrochemical method for detecting the presence of zinc (Zn2+) ions in drinking water was developed using functionalized multi-walled carbon nanotubes (f-MWCNTs) and chitosan (CS). Numerous cylinder-shaped graphene molecules make up f-MWCNTs, which have a high mechanical and electrical conductivity. CS benefits from nanomaterials include biocompatibility, biodegradability, and low toxicity, which are excellent in capacity absorption of metal ions. Dangerous levels of metal ions such as zinc are currently present in drinking water as a result of human and natural activity. Zinc toxicity is associated with a variety of disorders, including Alzheimer's, Parkinson's, diabetes, and cancer. This study incorporated f-MWCNTs and CS with Prussian blue (PB) immobilised on a gold electrode (AuE). Several parameters, including as buffers, pH, scan rate, redox indicator, accumulation time, and volume, were optimised using the cyclic voltammetry (CV) method. According to the CV method, the optimal parameters were phosphate buffered saline (0.1 M, pH 2), 5 mM Prussian blue, 200 mVs-1 scan rate, and 5 s accumulation time. Under ideal circumstances, the differential pulse voltammetry (DPV) method was used to determine the Zn2+ ions concentration range of 0.2-7.0 ppm. The limit of detection (LOD) was 2.60 × 10-7 mol L-1 with a correlation coefficient of R2 = 0.9777. The recovery rate of the developed sensor (f-MWCNTs/CS/PB/AuE) ranged from 95.78 to 98.96%. The developed sensor showed a variety of advantages for detecting Zn2+ in drinking water, including a quick setup process, quick detection, high sensitivity, and mobility. This study developed the essential sensor for monitoring Zn2+ levels in drinking water in the future.
  2. Fulltext Optimization and Analytical Behavior of Electrochemical Sensors Based on the Modification of Indium Tin Oxide (ITO) Using PANI/MWCNTs/AuNPs for Mercury Detection
    Bohari NA, Siddiquee S, Saallah S, Misson M, Arshad SE
    Sensors (Basel), 2020 Nov 14;20(22).
    PMID: 33202533 DOI: 10.3390/s20226502
    In the present study, indium tin oxide (ITO) was used as a transparent working electrode for the development of an electrochemical sensor for the detection of mercury (II) ions (Hg2+). The electrode was modified by direct electrodeposition of polyaniline (PANI), multiwalled carbon nanotubes (MWCNTs) and gold nanoparticles (AuNPs) followed by optimization of the analyte and operating conditions, aiming to improve the selectivity, sensitivity and reliability of the electrode for mercury detection. Successful immobilization of the PANI and nanomaterials (MWCNTs and AuNPs) on the ITO electrode was confirmed by Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM), Energy Dispersive X-ray (EDX) and Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy (FTIR) analyses. The optimum conditions for mercury detection using the modified ITO electrode were pH 7.0 of Tris-HCl buffer (50 mM) in the presence of 1 mM methylene blue (MB) as a redox indicator, a scan rate of 0.10 V·s-1 and a 70 s interaction time. The electrochemical behavior of the modified electrode under the optimized conditions indicated a high reproducibility and high sensitivity of mercury detection. It is therefore suggested that the PANI/MWCNT/AuNP-modified ITO electrode could be a promising material for the development of on-site mercury detection tools for applications in fields such as diagnostics, the environment, safety and security controls or other industries.
  3. Fulltext Synthesis and Characterization of Polymeric Microspheres Template for a Homogeneous and Porous Monolith
    Ibadat NF, Ongkudon CM, Saallah S, Misson M
    Polymers (Basel), 2021 Oct 22;13(21).
    PMID: 34771196 DOI: 10.3390/polym13213639
    Monolith is an emerging technology applicable for separation, filtration, and chromatography due to its interconnected pore structure. However, the current templates used to form monolith pores are associated with poor heat dissipation, uneven pore size distribution, and relatively low mechanical strength during monolith scale-up. Templates made from polymeric microsphere particles were synthesized via a solvent evaporation technique using different types of polymer (polystyrene, polycaprolactone, polypropylene, polyethylene, and poly (vinyl-alcohol) at varied polymer (10-40 wt%) and surfactant (5-10%) concentrations. The resulting microsphere particles were tested as a monolith template for the formation of homogenous pores. Among the tested polymers, polystyrene at 10 wt% concentration demonstrated good particle morphology determined to around 1.94-3.45 µm. The addition of surfactant at a concentration of 7-10 wt% during microsphere synthesis resulted in the formation of well-shaped and non-aggregating microsphere particles. In addition, the template has contributed to the production of porous monoliths with enhanced thermal stability. The thermogravimetric analysis (TGA) indicated monolith degradation between 230 °C and 450 °C, implying the material excellent mechanical strength. The findings of the study provide insightful knowledge on the feasibility of polymeric microsphere particles as a pore-directing template to fabricate monoliths with desired pore structures.
  4. Fulltext Immobilisation of cyclodextrin glucanotransferase into polyvinyl alcohol (PVA) nanofibres via electrospinning
    Saallah S, Naim MN, Lenggoro IW, Mokhtar MN, Abu Bakar NF, Gen M
    Biotechnol Rep (Amst), 2016 Jun;10:44-48.
    PMID: 28352523 DOI: 10.1016/j.btre.2016.03.003
    Immobilisation of cyclodextrin glucanotransferase (CGTase) on nanofibres was demonstrated. CGTase solution (1% v/v) and PVA (8 wt%) solution were mixed followed by electrospinning (-9 kV, 3 h). CGTase/PVA nanofibres with an average diameter of 176 ± 46 nm were successfully produced. The nanofibres that consist of immobilised CGTase were crosslinked with glutaraldehyde vapour. A CGTase/PVA film made up from the same mixture and treated the same way was used as a control experiment. The immobilised CGTase on nanofibres showed superior performance with nearly a 2.5 fold higher enzyme loading and 31% higher enzyme activity in comparison with the film.
  5. Transformation of cyclodextrin glucanotransferase (CGTase) from aqueous suspension to fine solid particles via electrospraying
    Saallah S, Naim MN, Mokhtar MN, Abu Bakar NF, Gen M, Lenggoro IW
    Enzyme Microb Technol, 2014 Oct;64-65:52-9.
    PMID: 25152417 DOI: 10.1016/j.enzmictec.2014.06.002
    In this study, the potential of electrohydrodynamic atomization or electrospraying to produce nanometer-order CGTase particles from aqueous suspension was demonstrated. CGTase enzyme was prepared in acetate buffer solution (1% v/v), followed by electrospraying in stable Taylor cone-jet mode. The deposits were collected on aluminium foil (collector) at variable distances from the tip of spraying needle, ranging from 10 to 25 cm. The Coulomb fission that occurs during electrospraying process successfully transformed the enzyme to the solid state without any functional group deterioration. The functional group verification was conducted by FTIR analysis. Comparison between the deposit and the as-received enzyme in dry state indicates almost identical spectra. By increasing the distance of the collector from the needle tip, the average particle size of the solidified enzyme was reduced from 200±117 nm to 75±34 nm. The average particle sizes produced from the droplet fission were in agreement with the scaling law models. Enzyme activity analysis showed that the enzyme retained its initial activity after the electrospraying process. The enzyme particles collected at the longest distance (25 cm) demonstrated the highest enzyme activity, which indicates that the activity was controlled by the enzyme particle size.
  6. Fulltext Visual and Optical Absorbance Detection of Melamine in Milk by Melamine-Induced Aggregation of Gold Nanoparticles
    Siddiquee S, Saallah S, Bohari NA, Ringgit G, Roslan J, Naher L, et al.
    Nanomaterials (Basel), 2021 Apr 28;11(5).
    PMID: 33924923 DOI: 10.3390/nano11051142
    The present study reported a facile method for the determination of melamine in milk powder products based on the aggregation of reactant-free 5 nm gold nanoparticles (AuNPs). The strong electrostatic attraction between the positively charged exocyclic amine groups present in the melamine molecule and the negatively charged ions bound to the AuNPs induced aggregation of the AuNPs, resulting in visible color changes that could be seen with the naked eye and monitored by ultraviolet-visible (UV-Vis) absorbance spectra. The method shows high sensitivity with detection limits of 1 × 10-9 M for visual detection and 1 × 10-11 M for UV-Vis analysis, which is far below the safety limit of melamine ingestion in infant formula (1 ppm = 7.9 × 10-6 M) and the detection limit acquired by most AuNP-based melamine detection methods. Good recoveries were obtained over the range of 94.7-95.5% with a relative standard deviation of mean recovery (RSD) ranging from 1.40 to 5.81. The method provides a simple, feasible, fast and real-time detection of melamine adulterants in infant formula by the naked eye, without the aid of advanced instruments.
  7. Identification patterns of Trichoderma strains using morphological characteristics, phylogenetic analyses and lignocellulolytic activities
    Asis A, Shahriar SA, Naher L, Saallah S, Fatihah HNN, Kumar V, et al.
    Mol Biol Rep, 2021 Apr;48(4):3285-3301.
    PMID: 33880673 DOI: 10.1007/s11033-021-06321-0
    Trichoderma is a genus of soil-borne fungus with an abundance of reports of its economic importance in the agriculture industry. Thus, the correct identification of Trichoderma species is necessary for its commercial purposes. Globally, Trichoderma species are routinely identified from micro-morphological descriptions which can be tedious and prone to errors. Thus, we emphasize that the accurate identification of Trichoderma strains requires a three-pronged approach i.e. based on its morphological characteristics, multilocus gene sequences of the rDNA [internal transcribed spacer (ITS) 1 and 2 regions], translation elongation factor 1-α (TEF-1α), Calmodulin (CAL) and its lignocellulolytic activities. We used this approach to identify a total of 53 Trichoderma strains which were isolated from a wet paddy field located at Tuaran, Sabah, Malaysia. The 53 strains were positively identified as belonging to three Trichoderma species, namely T. asperellum (43 strains), T. harzianum (9 strains), and T. reesei (one strain) on the basis of its morphological characteristics and multilocus gene sequences. Phylogenetic trees constructed based on the UPGMA method of the ITS 1 and 2 regions of the rDNA, TEF-1α and CAL revealed three distinct groups with the T. asperellum, T. harzianum and T. reesei strains placed under the section of Trichoderma, Pachybasium and Longibrachiatum, respectively. In addition, the lignocellulolytic activities of the isolates were measured based on the diameters of the halo zones produced when degrading cellulose, lignin, and starch, respectively. This diagnostic assay can be used to identify Trichoderma as it produces polyphenol oxidase when Tannic Acid Media is used for the lignin test, endoglucanases when Jensen media is used for cellulose, and it hydrolyzes starch to glucose when the modified Melin-Nokrans media is used for the starch test. Accurate identification of Trichoderma species is needed as these strains can potentially be used as a biocontrol agent to prevent diseases and to increase yield in agriculture crops.
  8. Fulltext Banana biomass waste: A prospective nanocellulose source and its potential application in food industry - A review
    Zaini HM, Saallah S, Roslan J, Sulaiman NS, Munsu E, Wahab NA, et al.
    Heliyon, 2023 Aug;9(8):e18734.
    PMID: 37554779 DOI: 10.1016/j.heliyon.2023.e18734
    Bananas are among the most produced and consumed fruit all over the world. However, a vast amount of banana biomass is generated because banana trees bear fruit only once in their lifetime. This massive amount of biomass waste is either disposed of in agricultural fields, combusted, or dumped at plantations, thus posing environmental concerns. Nanocellulose (NC) extraction from this source can be one approach to improve the value of banana biomass. Owing to its superb properties, such as high surface area and aspect ratio, good tensile strength, and high thermal stability, this has facilitated nanocellulose application in the food industry either as a functional ingredient, an additive or in food packaging. In this review, two different applications of banana biomass NC were identified: (i) food packaging and (ii) food stabilizers. Relevant publications were reviewed, focusing on the nanocellulose extraction from several banana biomass applications as food additives, as well as on the safety and regulatory aspects. Ultimately, further research is required to prompt a perspicuous conclusion about banana biomass NC safety, its potential hazards in food applications, as well as its validated standards for future commercialization.
  9. Fulltext Infectious Bronchitis Virus (Gammacoronavirus) in Poultry Farming: Vaccination, Immune Response and Measures for Mitigation
    Bhuiyan MSA, Amin Z, Rodrigues KF, Saallah S, Shaarani SM, Sarker S, et al.
    Vet Sci, 2021 Nov 12;8(11).
    PMID: 34822646 DOI: 10.3390/vetsci8110273
    Infectious bronchitis virus (IBV) poses significant financial and biosecurity challenges to the commercial poultry farming industry. IBV is the causative agent of multi-systemic infection in the respiratory, reproductive and renal systems, which is similar to the symptoms of various viral and bacterial diseases reported in chickens. The avian immune system manifests the ability to respond to subsequent exposure with an antigen by stimulating mucosal, humoral and cell-mediated immunity. However, the immune response against IBV presents a dilemma due to the similarities between the different serotypes that infect poultry. Currently, the live attenuated and killed vaccines are applied for the control of IBV infection; however, the continual emergence of IB variants with rapidly evolving genetic variants increases the risk of outbreaks in intensive poultry farms. This review aims to focus on IBV challenge-infection, route and delivery of vaccines and vaccine-induced immune responses to IBV. Various commercial vaccines currently have been developed against IBV protection for accurate evaluation depending on the local situation. This review also highlights and updates the limitations in controlling IBV infection in poultry with issues pertaining to antiviral therapy and good biosecurity practices, which may aid in establishing good biorisk management protocols for its control and which will, in turn, result in a reduction in economic losses attributed to IBV infection.
  10. Fulltext Factor Influences for Diagnosis and Vaccination of Avian Infectious Bronchitis Virus (Gammacoronavirus) in Chickens
    Bhuiyan MSA, Amin Z, Bakar AMSA, Saallah S, Yusuf NHM, Shaarani SM, et al.
    Vet Sci, 2021 Mar 16;8(3).
    PMID: 33809420 DOI: 10.3390/vetsci8030047
    Infectious bronchitis virus (IBV) is a major economic problem in commercial chicken farms with acute multiple-system infection, especially in respiratory and urogenital systems. A live-attenuated and killed vaccine is currently immunized to control IBV infection; however, repeated outbreaks occur in both unvaccinated and vaccinated birds due to the choice of inadequate vaccine candidates and continuous emergence of novel infectious bronchitis (IB) variants and failure of vaccination. However, similar clinical signs were shown in different respiratory diseases that are essential to improving the diagnostic assay to detect IBV infections. Various risk factors involved in the failure of IB vaccination, such as various routes of application of vaccination, the interval between vaccinations, and challenge with various possible immunosuppression of birds are reviewed. The review article also highlights and updates factors affecting the diagnosis of IBV disease in the poultry industry with differential diagnosis to find the nature of infections compared with non-IBV diseases. Therefore, it is essential to monitor the common reasons for failed IBV vaccinations with preventive action, and proper diagnostic facilities for identifying the infective stage, leading to earlier control and reduced economic losses from IBV disease.
  11. Fulltext A Retrospective Review of Global Commercial Seaweed Production-Current Challenges, Biosecurity and Mitigation Measures and Prospects
    Sugumaran R, Padam BS, Yong WTL, Saallah S, Ahmed K, Yusof NA
    Int J Environ Res Public Health, 2022 Jun 09;19(12).
    PMID: 35742332 DOI: 10.3390/ijerph19127087
    Commercial seaweed cultivation has undergone drastic changes to keep up with the increasing demand in terms of the quantity and quality of the algal biomass needed to meet the requirements of constant innovation in industrial applications. Diseases caused by both biotic and abiotic factors have been identified as contributing to the economic loss of precious biomass. Biosecurity risk will eventually affect seaweed production as a whole and could cripple the seaweed industry. The current review sheds light on the biosecurity measures that address issues in the seaweed industry pushing towards increasing the quantity and quality of algal biomass, research on algal diseases, and tackling existing challenges as well as discussions on future directions of seaweed research. The review is presented to provide a clear understanding of the latest biosecurity developments from several segments in the seaweed research, especially from upstream cultivation encompassing the farming stages from seeding, harvesting, drying, and packing, which may lead to better management of this precious natural resource, conserving ecological balance while thriving on the economic momentum that seaweed can potentially provide in the future. Recommended breeding strategies and seedling stock selection are discussed that aim to address the importance of sustainable seaweed farming and facilitate informed decision-making. Sustainable seaweed cultivation also holds the key to reducing our carbon footprint, thereby fighting the existential crisis of climate change plaguing our generation.
  12. Fulltext Comparative Study of The Yield and Physicochemical Properties of Collagen from Sea Cucumber (Holothuria scabra), Obtained through Dialysis and the Ultrafiltration Membrane
    Saallah S, Roslan J, Julius FS, Saallah S, Mohamad Razali UH, Pindi W, et al.
    Molecules, 2021 Apr 28;26(9).
    PMID: 33924820 DOI: 10.3390/molecules26092564
    Collagen was extracted from the body wall of sea cucumber (Holothuria scabra) using the pepsin-solubilized collagen method followed by isolation using dialysis and the ultrafiltration membrane. The yield and physicochemical properties of the collagen obtained from both isolation methods, denoted as D-PSC and UF-PSC, were compared. The ultrafiltration method affords a higher yield of collagen (11.39%) than that of the dialysis (5.15%). The isolated collagens have almost the same amino acid composition, while their functional groups, referred to as amide A, B, I, II, and III bands, were in accordance with commercial collagen, as verified by Fourier Transform Infrared (FT-IR) spectroscopy. The UV-Vis absorption peaks at 240 nm and 220 nm, respectively, indicated that the collagens produced are type-I collagen. The D-PSC showed interconnecting sheet-like fibrils, while the UF-PSC exhibited a flaky structure with flat-sheets arranged very close to each other. The higher yield and comparable physicochemical properties of the collagen obtained by ultrafiltration as compared with dialysis indicate that the membrane process has high potential to be used in large-scale collagen production for food and pharmaceutical applications.
  13. Fulltext Seroprevalence and molecular characterisation of infectious bronchitis virus (IBV) in broiler farms in Sabah, Malaysia
    Bhuiyan MSA, Sarker S, Amin Z, Rodrigues KF, Bakar AMSA, Saallah S, et al.
    Vet Med Sci, 2023 Dec 27.
    PMID: 38151844 DOI: 10.1002/vms3.1153
    BACKGROUND: Infectious bronchitis virus (IBV) is classified as a highly contagious viral agent that causes acute respiratory, reproductive and renal system pathology in affected poultry farms. Molecular and serological investigations are crucial for the accurate diagnosis and management of IBV.

    OBJECTIVES: The purpose of this study was to determine the seroprevalence of IBV and to characterise the circulating IBV in poultry farms in Sabah Province, Malaysia.

    METHODS: To determine IBV antibodies, a total of 138 blood samples and 50 organ samples were collected from 10 commercial broiler flocks in 3 different farms by using the enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) (IDEXX Kit) and reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) followed by sequencing.

    RESULTS: A total of 94.2% (130/138) of the samples were seropositive for IBV in the vaccinated flock, and 38% (52/138) of the birds was the IBV titre for infection. The selected seropositive samples for IBV were confirmed by RT-PCR, with 22% (11/50) being IBV positive amplified and sequenced by targeted highly conserved partial nucleocapsid (N) genes. Subsequently, phylogenetic analysis constructed using amplified sequences again exposed the presence of Connecticut, Massachusetts, and Chinese QX variants circulating in poultry farms in Sabah, Malaysia.

    CONCLUSIONS: The unexpectedly increasing mean titres in serology indicated that post infection of IBV and highly prevalent IBV in selected farms in this study. The sequencing and phylogenetic analysis revealed the presence of multiple IBV variants circulating in Malaysian chicken farms in Sabah, which further monitoring of genetic variation are needed to better understand the genetic diversity.

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