Pathogenic Acanthamoeba species are the causative agents of Acanthamoeba keratitis and granulomatous amoebic encephalitis. Members of this amoeba genus are ubiquitous in the environments. In Malaysia, most environmental studies performed to date have targeted the detection and characterisation of Acanthamoeba sp. in different water sources, dust and soil samples collected near human habitats. However, no local study has yet to examine these amoebae in a forest, an isolated terrestrial environment, where human activity is relatively scarce. Further, there are also limited studies to investigate the same globally. The current study reported the isolation, morphological and genotypic characterisations of eleven Acanthamoeba sp. isolated from soils of the Payeh Maga Highland forest, Sarawak, Malaysia. Morphological analysis revealed that nine isolates belonged to Group II, whereas two isolates belonged to Group III as defined by the criteria of Pussard and Pons. The phylogenetic analysis based on complete 18S rRNA gene sequences showed that the isolates belonged to the rare T1 (six isolates), T6 (two isolates) and T13 (three isolates) genotypes. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first report about the detection of T6 Acanthamoeba sp. in this country. Overall, the current findings have enriched the knowledge pertaining to the occurrence, morphological and genotypic characteristics of Acanthamoeba sp. in an isolated terrestrial environment of Malaysia.
Nasopharyngeal carcinoma (NPC) is a distinct type of head and neck cancer that is highly associated with Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) infection. EBV acts as an epigenetic driver in NPC tumorigenesis, reprogramming the viral and host epigenomes to regulate viral latent gene expression, and creating an environment conducive to the malignant transformation of nasopharyngeal epithelial cells. Targeting epigenetic mechanisms in pre-clinical studies has been shown promise in eradicating tumours and overcoming immune resistance in some solid tumours. However, its efficacy in NPC remains inclusive due to the complex nature of this cancer. In this review, we provide an updated understanding of the roles of epigenetic factors in regulating EBV latent gene expression and promoting NPC progression. We also explore the crosstalk between epigenetic mechanisms and immune evasion in NPC. Particularly, we discuss the potential roles of DNA methyltransferase (DNMT) and histone deacetylase (HDAC) inhibitors in reversing immune suppression and augmenting antitumour immunity. Furthermore, we highlight the advantages of combining epigenetic therapy and immune checkpoint inhibitor to reverse immune resistance and improve clinical outcomes. Epigenetic drugs have the potential to modulate both epigenetic mediators and immune factors involved in NPC. However, further research is needed to fully comprehend the diverse range of epigenetic modifications in NPC. A deeper understanding of the crosstalk between epigenetic mechanisms and immune evasion during NPC progression is crucial for the development of more effective treatments for this challenging disease.
Nasopharyngeal carcinoma (NPC) is a distinct malignancy of the nasopharynx and is consistently associated with the Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) infection. Its unique anatomical location and complex aetiology often result in advanced-stage disease at first diagnosis. While radiotherapy (RT) and chemotherapy have been the mainstays of treatment, they often fail to prevent tumour recurrence and metastasis, leading to high rates of treatment failure and mortality. Recent advancement in cell-based therapies, such as chimeric antigen receptor (CAR)-T cell therapy, have shown great promise in hematological malignancies and are now being investigated for NPC. However, challenges such as targeting specific tumour antigens, limited T cell persistence and proliferation, and managing treatment-related toxicities must be addressed. Extensive research is needed to enhance the effectiveness and safety of these therapies, paving the way for their integration into standard clinical practice for better management of NPC and a better quality of life for human health.