Breakfast is an important meal that has been shown to have a positive effect on health. The current study aimed to assess the patterns of breakfast consumption among adult Indonesians and to estimate the contribution of breakfast to their nutrient intake and dietary quality. The study used 24-h recall data from the 2018 Indonesian Food Barometer study to assess breakfast intake among 1333 adults aged 18 and above from six provinces in Indonesia. Diet quality was measured using the Nutrient Rich Food index (NRF) 9.3, and the nutritional profile of breakfast was compared across tertiles of NRF 9.3. In total, 5.2% of adults in Indonesia skipped breakfast. Breakfast contributed 26% to daily energy intakes and 22-28% to intakes of all reported nutrients, except for total sugar (12%), vitamin C (8%) and vitamin D (7%). With respect to daily requirements, breakfast contributed approximately 20% to energy, protein, fat and sodium requirements, 26% to saturated fat but <15% to the requirements for most micronutrients and only 5% for fiber. Among breakfast consumers, a higher NRF score was associated with higher daily intakes of protein, dietary fiber and micronutrients and lower intakes of sodium from breakfast. This study suggests that a balanced breakfast in Indonesia should aim to lower fat and saturated fat intake while increasing fiber, potassium, calcium and vitamin C and D intake. These findings could inform the development of nutrient-based guidelines for breakfast consumption in Indonesia.
Countries in South East Asia are undergoing a nutrition transition, which typically involves a dietary shift from plant to animal proteins. To explore the main drivers of protein consumption, the SCRiPT (Socio Cultural Research in Protein Transition) study recruited a population sample in Malaysia (N = 1604). Participants completed in-person 24 h dietary recalls and socio-demographic surveys. Energy and nutrient intakes were estimated using Nutritionist Pro. A novel recipe-based frequency count coded protein sources as meat (chicken, beef, pork, and mutton), fish, eggs, dairy, and plants (cereals, pulses, tubers). Dietary intakes and frequencies were examined by gender, age, income, education, ethnicity, religion, and family status, using ANOVAs and general linear models. Energy intakes were 1869 kcal/d for men and 1699 kcal/d for women. Protein intakes were 78.5 g/d for men and 72.5 g/d for women. Higher energy and protein intakes were associated with Chinese ethnicity, higher education and incomes. Frequency counts identified plant proteins in 50% of foods, followed by meat (19%), fish (12%), eggs (12%), and dairy (7%). Most frequent source of meat was chicken (16%) rather than pork or beef (1.5% each). In bivariate analyses, animal protein counts were associated with younger age, higher education and incomes. In mutually adjusted multivariate regression models, animal proteins were associated with education and ethnicity; plant proteins were associated with ethnicity and religion. Protein choices in Malaysia involve socio-cultural as well as economic variables.