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Fulltext Transcriptome analysis of Streptococcus pneumoniae treated with the designed antimicrobial peptides, DM3

Le CF, Gudimella R, Razali R, Manikam R, Sekaran SD

Sci Rep, 2016 05 26;6:26828.
PMID: 27225022 DOI: 10.1038/srep26828

In our previous studies, we generated a short 13 amino acid antimicrobial peptide (AMP), DM3, showing potent antipneumococcal activity in vitro and in vivo. Here we analyse the underlying mechanisms of action using Next-Generation transcriptome sequencing of penicillin (PEN)-resistant and PEN-susceptible pneumococci treated with DM3, PEN, and combination of DM3 and PEN (DM3PEN). DM3 induced differential expression in cell wall and cell membrane structural and transmembrane processes. Notably, DM3 altered the expression of competence-induction pathways by upregulating CelA, CelB, and CglA while downregulating Ccs16, ComF, and Ccs4 proteins. Capsular polysaccharide subunits were downregulated in DM3-treated cells, however, it was upregulated in PEN- and DM3PEN-treated groups. Additionally, DM3 altered the amino acids biosynthesis pathways, particularly targeting ribosomal rRNA subunits. Downregulation of cationic AMPs resistance pathway suggests that DM3 treatment could autoenhance pneumococci susceptibility to DM3. Gene enrichment analysis showed that unlike PEN and DM3PEN, DM3 treatment exerted no effect on DNA-binding RNA polymerase activity but observed downregulation of RpoD and RNA polymerase sigma factor. In contrast to DM3, DM3PEN altered the regulation of multiple purine/pyrimidine biosynthesis and metabolic pathways. Future studies based on in vitro experiments are proposed to investigate the key pathways leading to pneumococcal cell death caused by DM3.
Phyllanthus spp. Exerts Anti-Angiogenic and Anti-Metastatic Effects Through Inhibition on Matrix Metalloproteinase Enzymes

Tang YQ, Jaganath IB, Manikam R, Sekaran SD

Nutr Cancer, 2015;67(5):783-95.
PMID: 25996262 DOI: 10.1080/01635581.2015.1040518

Tumor angiogenesis and metastasis are the major causes for high morbidity and mortality rates in cancer patient. Modulation on tumor angiogenesis and metastasis provides opportunities to halt progression of cancer. From our previous findings, Phyllanthus plant possesses antiproliferative effects on melanoma and prostate cancer cell lines and induction of apoptosis. The main aims of the present work were further investigated on the antimetastatic and antiangiogenic effects on cancer cells (MeWo and PC-3) and human umbilical vein endothelial cells (HUVECs) of 4 Phyllanthus species (P.amarus, P.niruri, P.urinaria and P.watsonii). Phyllanthus extracts significantly inhibited cell adhesion, migration, invasion, and transendothelial migration activities of cancer (MeWo and PC-3) cells in a dose-dependent manner (P < 0.05) by cell-matrix adhesion, Transwell migration, invasion, and transendothelial migration assays. Phyllanthus extracts were exhibited low cytotoxicity on HUVECs up to a concentration of 500.0 μg/ml by MTS reduction assay. Phyllanthus extracts also exhibited antiangiogenic effects through inhibition of migration, invasion, and microcapillary like-tube structure formation in HUVECs. These observations were due to alteration in activities of matrix metalloproteinase (MMP) -2, -7, -9, and -26 in treated-endothelial and cancer cells by zymographies. These findings suggest that Phyllanthus plant has the potential to inhibit tumour metastasis and angiogenesis through the suppression of MMP enzymes.
Fulltext Major pathophysiological correlations of rosacea: a complete clinical appraisal

Vemuri RC, Gundamaraju R, Sekaran SD, Manikam R

Int J Med Sci, 2015;12(5):387-96.
PMID: 26005373 DOI: 10.7150/ijms.10608

Rosacea is a characteristic cutaneous disorder with a diverse clinical manifestations ranging from facial vascular hyper-reactivity to sebaceous gland hyperplasia. Many theories on pathophysiology of rosacea were proposed over the past decade, however the pathogenicity is poorly understood.
Fulltext In vitro properties of designed antimicrobial peptides that exhibit potent antipneumococcal activity and produces synergism in combination with penicillin

Le CF, Yusof MY, Hassan H, Sekaran SD

Sci Rep, 2015;5:9761.
PMID: 25985150 DOI: 10.1038/srep09761

Antimicrobial peptides (AMPs) represent a promising class of novel antimicrobial agents owing to their potent antimicrobial activity. In this study, two lead peptides from unrelated classes of AMPs were systematically hybridized into a series of five hybrid peptides (DM1-DM5) with conserved N- and C-termini. This approach allows sequence bridging of two highly dissimilar AMPs and enables sequence-activity relationship be detailed down to single amino acid level. Presence of specific amino acids and physicochemical properties were used to describe the antipneumococcal activity of these hybrids. Results obtained suggested that cell wall and/or membrane targeting could be the principal mechanism exerted by the hybrids leading to microbial cell killing. Moreover, the pneumocidal rate was greater than penicillin (PEN). Combination treatment with both DMs and PEN produced synergism. The hybrids were also broad spectrum against multiple common clinical bacteria. Sequence analysis showed that presence of specific residues has a major role in affecting the antimicrobial and cell toxicity of the hybrids than physicochemical properties. Future studies should continue to investigate the mechanisms of actions, in vivo therapeutic potential, and improve rational peptide design based on the current strategy.
Fulltext Oil palm phenolics attenuate changes caused by an atherogenic diet in mice

Leow SS, Sekaran SD, Sundram K, Tan Y, Sambanthamurthi R

Eur J Nutr, 2013 Mar;52(2):443-56.
PMID: 22527284 DOI: 10.1007/s00394-012-0346-0

BACKGROUND: Water-soluble phenolics from the oil palm possess significant biological properties.
PURPOSE: In this study, we aimed to discover the role of oil palm phenolics (OPP) in influencing the gene expression changes caused by an atherogenic diet in mice.
METHODS: We fed mice with either a low-fat normal diet (14.6 % kcal/kcal fat) with distilled water, or a high-fat atherogenic diet (40.5 % kcal/kcal fat) containing cholesterol. The latter group was given either distilled water or OPP. We harvested major organs such as livers, spleens and hearts for microarray gene expression profiling analysis. We determined how OPP changed the gene expression profiles caused by the atherogenic diet. In addition to gene expression studies, we carried out physiological observations, blood hematology as well as clinical biochemistry, cytokine profiling and antioxidant assays on their blood sera.
RESULTS: Using Illumina microarrays, we found that the atherogenic diet caused oxidative stress, inflammation and increased turnover of metabolites and cells in the liver, spleen and heart. In contrast, OPP showed signs of attenuating these effects. The extract increased unfolded protein response in the liver, attenuated antigen presentation and processing in the spleen and up-regulated antioxidant genes in the heart. Real-time quantitative reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction validated the microarray gene expression fold changes observed. Serum cytokine profiling showed that OPP attenuated inflammation by modulating the Th1/Th2 axis toward the latter. OPP also increased serum antioxidant activity to normal levels.
CONCLUSION: This study suggests that OPP may possibly attenuate atherosclerosis and other forms of cardiovascular disease.
Antibacterial action of a heat-stable form of L-amino acid oxidase isolated from king cobra (Ophiophagus hannah) venom

Lee ML, Tan NH, Fung SY, Sekaran SD

Comp Biochem Physiol C Toxicol Pharmacol, 2011 Mar;153(2):237-42.
PMID: 21059402 DOI: 10.1016/j.cbpc.2010.11.001

The major l-amino acid oxidase (LAAO, EC 1.4.3.2) of king cobra (Ophiophagus hannah) venom is known to be an unusual form of snake venom LAAO as it possesses unique structural features and unusual thermal stability. The antibacterial effects of king cobra venom LAAO were tested against several strains of clinical isolates including Staphylococcus aureus, Staphylococcus epidermidis, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Klebsiella pneumoniae, and Escherichia coli using broth microdilution assay. For comparison, the antibacterial effects of several antibiotics (cefotaxime, kanamycin, tetracycline, vancomycin and penicillin) were also examined using the same conditions. King cobra venom LAAO was very effective in inhibiting the two Gram-positive bacteria (S. aureus and S. epidermidis) tested, with minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) of 0.78μg/mL (0.006μM) and 1.56μg/mL (0.012μM) against S. aureus and S. epidermidis, respectively. The MICs are comparable to the MICs of the antibiotics tested, on a weight basis. However, the LAAO was only moderately effective against three Gram-negative bacteria tested (P. aeruginosa, K. pneumoniae and E. coli), with MIC ranges from 25 to 50μg/mL (0.2-0.4μM). Catalase at the concentration of 1mg/mL abolished the antibacterial effect of LAAO, indicating that the antibacterial effect of the enzyme involves generation of hydrogen peroxide. Binding studies indicated that king cobra venom LAAO binds strongly to the Gram-positive S. aureus and S. epidermidis, but less strongly to the Gram-negative E. coli and P. aeruginosa, indicating that specific binding to bacteria is important for the potent antibacterial activity of the enzyme.
Detection of mecA and ermA genes and simultaneous identification of Staphylococcus aureus using triplex real-time PCR from Malaysian S. aureus strain collections

Sabet NS, Subramaniam G, Navaratnam P, Sekaran SD

Int J Antimicrob Agents, 2007 May;29(5):582-5.
PMID: 17314034

A triplex real-time polymerase chain reaction (PCR) assay was used for the simultaneous detection of mecA (methicillin resistance), ermA (erythromycin resistance) and femA (Staphylococcus aureus identification) genes in a single assay. Among 93 clinical S. aureus hospital isolates, there were 48 methicillin-resistant S. aureus (MRSA) and 45 methicillin-sensitive S. aureus (MSSA) isolates. Screening the isolates using the triplex real-time PCR assay, the mecA, ermA and femA genes were detected in all MRSA isolates. The triplex real-time PCR assay was completed within 3h and is a useful genotypic method for detecting the resistance determinants as well as for the identification of S. aureus isolates. These findings will assist the clinical laboratory in identifying these resistance genes and S. aureus rapidly, thus benefiting patient therapy. This study represents a valuable source of information for researchers to study the local antibiotic resistance pattern, which can increase our knowledge of the antibiotic resistance profile, using real-time PCR technology.
Immunofluorescence-based biosensor for the determination of dengue virus NS1 in clinical samples

Darwish NT, Sekaran SD, Alias Y, Khor SM

J Pharm Biomed Anal, 2018 Feb 05;149:591-602.
PMID: 29197806 DOI: 10.1016/j.jpba.2017.11.064

The sharp increase in incidence of dengue infection has necessitated the development of methods for the rapid diagnosis of this deadly disease. Here we report the design and development of a reliable, sensitive, and specific optical immunosensor for the detection of the dengue nonstructural protein 1 (NS1) biomarker in clinical samples obtained during early stages of infection. The present optical NS1 immunosensor comprises a biosensing surface consisting of specific monoclonal NS1 antibody for immunofluorescence-based NS1 antigen determination using fluorescein isothiocyanate (FITC) conjugated to IgG antibody. The linear range of the optical immunosensor was from 15-500ngmL-1, with coefficient of determination (R2) of 0.92, high reproducibility (the relative standard deviation obtained was 2%), good stability for 21days at 4°C, and low detection limit (LOD) at 15ngmL-1. Furthermore, the optical immunosensor was capable of detecting NS1 analytes in plasma specimens from patients infected with the dengue virus, with low cross-reaction with plasma specimens containing the Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV) and Zika virus. No studies have been performed on the reproducibility and cross-reactivity regarding NS1 specificity, which is thus a limitation for optical NS1 immunosensors. In contrast, the present study addressed these limitations carefully where these two important experiments were conducted to showcase the robustness of our newly developed optical-based fluorescence immunosensor, which can be practically used for direct NS1 determination in any untreated clinical sample.
Fulltext Rapid detection and serotyping of dengue virus by multiplex RT-PCR and real-time SYBR green RT-PCR

Yong YK, Thayan R, Chong HT, Tan CT, Sekaran SD

Singapore Med J, 2007 Jul;48(7):662-8.
PMID: 17609830

Dengue fever and dengue haemorrhagic fever currently rank highly among the newly-emerging infectious diseases, and are considered to be the most important arboviral disease worldwide. The definitive diagnosis is culture analysis, but practical considerations limit its use. Also, the period for viral detection is limited. Within a day or two after fever subsides, rising levels of antibodies interfere with viral cultures. An alternative to this quandary is the use of viral RNA detection assays. In our laboratory, a reverse transcriptase polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) assay was developed using a set of degenerate primers.
Fulltext Differential transcriptomic profiles effected by oil palm phenolics indicate novel health outcomes

Leow SS, Sekaran SD, Sundram K, Tan Y, Sambanthamurthi R

BMC Genomics, 2011 Aug 25;12:432.
PMID: 21864415 DOI: 10.1186/1471-2164-12-432

BACKGROUND: Plant phenolics are important nutritional antioxidants which could aid in overcoming chronic diseases such as cardiovascular disease and cancer, two leading causes of death in the world. The oil palm (Elaeis guineensis) is a rich source of water-soluble phenolics which have high antioxidant activities. This study aimed to identify the in vivo effects and molecular mechanisms involved in the biological activities of oil palm phenolics (OPP) during healthy states via microarray gene expression profiling, using mice supplemented with a normal diet as biological models.
RESULTS: Having confirmed via histology, haematology and clinical biochemistry analyses that OPP is not toxic to mice, we further explored the gene expression changes caused by OPP through statistical and functional analyses using Illumina microarrays. OPP showed numerous biological activities in three major organs of mice, the liver, spleen and heart. In livers of mice given OPP, four lipid catabolism genes were up-regulated while five cholesterol biosynthesis genes were down-regulated, suggesting that OPP may play a role in reducing cardiovascular disease. OPP also up-regulated eighteen blood coagulation genes in spleens of mice. OPP elicited gene expression changes similar to the effects of caloric restriction in the hearts of mice supplemented with OPP. Microarray gene expression fold changes for six target genes in the three major organs tested were validated with real-time quantitative reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction (qRT-PCR), and the correlation of fold changes obtained with these two techniques was high (R2 = 0.9653).
CONCLUSIONS: OPP showed non-toxicity and various pleiotropic effects in mice. This study implies the potential application of OPP as a valuable source of wellness nutraceuticals, and further suggests the molecular mechanisms as to how dietary phenolics work in vivo.
Fulltext Phyllanthus Suppresses Prostate Cancer Cell, PC-3, Proliferation and Induces Apoptosis through Multiple Signalling Pathways (MAPKs, PI3K/Akt, NFκB, and Hypoxia)

Tang YQ, Jaganath I, Manikam R, Sekaran SD

Evid Based Complement Alternat Med, 2013;2013:609581.
PMID: 23690850 DOI: 10.1155/2013/609581

Phyllanthus is a traditional medicinal plant that has been found to have antihepatitis, antibacterial, and anticancer properties. The present studies were to investigate the in vitro molecular mechanisms of anticancer effects of Phyllanthus (P. amarus, P. niruri, P. urinaria, and P. watsonii) plant extracts in human prostate adenocarcinoma. The cancer ten-pathway reporter array was performed and revealed that the expression of six pathway reporters were significantly decreased (Wnt, NFκB, Myc/Max, hypoxia, MAPK/ERK, and MAPK/JNK) in PC-3 cells after treatment with Phyllanthus extracts. Western blot was conducted and identified several signalling molecules that were affected in the signalling pathways including pan-Ras, c-Raf, RSK, Elk1, c-Jun, JNK1/2, p38 MAPK, c-myc, DSH, β-catenin, Akt, HIF-1α, GSK3β, NFκB p50 and p52, Bcl-2, Bax, and VEGF, in treated PC-3 cells. A proteomics-based approach, 2D gel electrophoresis, was performed, and mass spectrometry (MS/MS) results revealed that there were 72 differentially expressed proteins identified in treated PC-3 cells and were involved in tumour cell adhesion, apoptosis, glycogenesis and glycolysis, metastasis, angiogenesis, and protein synthesis and energy metabolism. Overall, these findings suggest that Phyllanthus can interfere with multiple signalling cascades involved in tumorigenesis and be used as a potential therapeutic candidate for treatment of cancer.
Fulltext Strophanthus hispidus attenuates the Ischemia-Reperfusion induced myocardial Infarction and reduces mean arterial pressure in renal artery occlusion

Gundamaraju R, Vemuri RC, Singla RK, Manikam R, Rao AR, Sekaran SD

Pharmacogn Mag, 2014 Aug;10(Suppl 3):S557-62.
PMID: 25298674 DOI: 10.4103/0973-1296.139782

The myocardium is generally injured in the case of reperfusion injury and arterial damage is caused by hypertension. In reference to these statements, the present study was focused. Cardiac glycosides were said to have protective effects against myocardial infarction and hypertension. Strophanthus hispidus was thus incorporated in the study.
Serological diagnosis of dengue infection in blood plasma using long-range surface plasmon waveguides

Wong WR, Krupin O, Sekaran SD, Mahamd Adikan FR, Berini P

Anal Chem, 2014 Feb 4;86(3):1735-43.
PMID: 24410440 DOI: 10.1021/ac403539k

We present a compact, cost-effective, label-free, real-time biosensor based on long-range surface plasmon polariton (LRSPP) gold (Au) waveguides for the detection of dengue-specific immunoglobulin M (IgM) antibody, and we demonstrate detection in actual patient blood plasma samples. Two surface functionalization approaches are proposed and demonstrated: a dengue virus serotype 2 (DENV-2) functionalized surface to capture dengue-specific IgM antibody in blood plasma and the reverse, a blood plasma functionalized surface to capture DENV-2. The results obtained via these two surface functionalization approaches are comparable to, or of greater quality, than those collected by conventional IgM antibody capture enzyme linked immunosorbent assay (MAC-ELISA). Our second functionalization approach was found to minimize nonspecific binding, thus improving the sensitivity and accuracy of the test. We also demonstrate reuse of the biosensors by regenerating the sensing surface down to the virus (or antibody) level or down to the bare Au.
Fulltext Inhibition of dengue virus entry into target cells using synthetic antiviral peptides

Alhoot MA, Rathinam AK, Wang SM, Manikam R, Sekaran SD

Int J Med Sci, 2013;10(6):719-29.
PMID: 23630436 DOI: 10.7150/ijms.5037

Despite the importance of DENV as a human pathogen, there is no specific treatment or protective vaccine. Successful entry into the host cells is necessary for establishing the infection. Recently, the virus entry step has become an attractive therapeutic strategy because it represents a barrier to suppress the onset of the infection. Four putative antiviral peptides were designed to target domain III of DENV-2 E protein using BioMoDroid algorithm. Two peptides showed significant inhibition of DENV when simultaneously incubated as shown by plaque formation assay, RT-qPCR, and Western blot analysis. Both DET4 and DET2 showed significant inhibition of virus entry (84.6% and 40.6% respectively) using micromolar concentrations. Furthermore, the TEM images showed that the inhibitory peptides caused structural abnormalities and alteration of the arrangement of the viral E protein, which interferes with virus binding and entry. Inhibition of DENV entry during the initial stages of infection can potentially reduce the viremia in infected humans resulting in prevention of the progression of dengue fever to the severe life-threatening infection, reduce the infected vector numbers, and thus break the transmission cycle. Moreover these peptides though designed against the conserved region in DENV-2 would have the potential to be active against all the serotypes of dengue and might be considered as Hits to begin designing and developing of more potent analogous peptides that could constitute as promising therapeutic agents for attenuating dengue infection.
Fulltext Cytokine factors present in dengue patient sera induces alterations of junctional proteins in human endothelial cells

Appanna R, Wang SM, Ponnampalavanar SA, Lum LC, Sekaran SD

Am J Trop Med Hyg, 2012 Nov;87(5):936-42.
PMID: 22987650 DOI: 10.4269/ajtmh.2012.11-0606

Plasma leakage in severe dengue has been postulated to be associated with skewed cytokine immune responses. In this study, the association of cytokines with vascular permeability in dengue patients was investigated. Human serum samples collected from 48 persons (13 with dengue fever, 29 with dengue hemorrhagic fever, and 6 healthy) were subjected to cytokines analysis by using Luminex Multiplex Technology. Selected serum samples from patients with dengue hemorrhagic fever sera and recombinant human cytokines were then tested for roles on inducing vascular permeability by treatment of human umbilical vein endothelial cells. Confocal immunofluorescence staining indicated morphologic alteration of human umbilical vein endothelial cells treated with serum samples from patients with dengue hemorrhagic fever compared with serum samples from healthy persons. The findings suggest that cytokines produced during dengue hemorrhagic infections could induce alterations in the vascular endothelium, which may play a fundamental role in the pathophysiology of dengue.
Fulltext Detection of quorum sensing signal molecules and identification of an autoinducer synthase gene among biofilm forming clinical isolates of Acinetobacter spp

Anbazhagan D, Mansor M, Yan GO, Md Yusof MY, Hassan H, Sekaran SD

PLoS One, 2012;7(7):e36696.
PMID: 22815678 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0036696

Quorum sensing is a term that describes an environmental sensing system that allows bacteria to monitor their own population density which contributes significantly to the size and development of the biofilm. Many gram negative bacteria use N-acyl-homoserine lactones as quorum sensing signal molecules. In this study, we sought to find out if the biofilm formation among clinical isolates of Acinetobacter spp. is under the control of autoinducing quorum sensing molecules.
The epidemiology of pneumococcal carriage and infections in Malaysia

Le CF, Jefferies JM, Yusof MY, Sekaran SD, Clarke SC

Expert Rev Anti Infect Ther, 2012 Jun;10(6):707-19.
PMID: 22734960 DOI: 10.1586/eri.12.54

In Malaysia, various aspects of the epidemiology of pneumococcal carriage and disease remain largely unclear due to the lack of supporting data. Although a number of relevant studies have been documented, their individual discrete findings are not sufficient to inform experts on pneumococcal epidemiology at a national level. Therefore, in this review we aim to bring together and systematically evaluate the key information regarding pneumococcal disease epidemiology in Malaysia and provide a comprehensive overview of the data. Major aspects discussed include pneumococcal carriage, disease incidence and prevalence, age factors, invasiveness of pneumococci, serotypes, molecular epidemiology and antibiotic susceptibility. Penicillin resistance is increasingly prevalent and studies suggest that the majority of pneumococcal serotypes causing pneumococcal disease in Malaysia are covered by currently available conjugate vaccines. Continued surveillance is needed to provide a better understanding of pneumococcal epidemiology in Malaysia.
Fulltext Dengue infection and miscarriage: a prospective case control study

Tan PC, Soe MZ, Si Lay K, Wang SM, Sekaran SD, Omar SZ

PLoS Negl Trop Dis, 2012;6(5):e1637.
PMID: 22590658 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pntd.0001637

Dengue is the most prevalent mosquito borne infection worldwide. Vertical transmissions after maternal dengue infection to the fetus and pregnancy losses in relation to dengue illness have been reported. The relationship of dengue to miscarriage is not known.
Fulltext Development of conventional and real-time multiplex PCR assays for the detection of nosocomial pathogens

Anbazhagan D, Mui WS, Mansor M, Yan GO, Yusof MY, Sekaran SD

Braz J Microbiol, 2011 Apr;42(2):448-58.
PMID: 24031653 DOI: 10.1590/S1517-83822011000200006

Nosocomial infections are major clinical threats to hospitalised patients and represent an important source of morbidity and mortality. It is necessary to develop rapid detection assays of nosocomial pathogens for better prognosis and initiation of antimicrobial therapy in patients. In this study, we present the development of molecular methods for the detection of six common nosocomial pathogens including Escherichia coli, Staphylococcus aureus, Streptococcus pneumoniae, Klebsiella pneumoniae, Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Acinetobacter spp. Conventional multiplex PCR and SYBR Green based real time PCR assays were performed using genus and species specific primers. Blind testing with 300 clinical samples was also carried out. The two assays were found to be sensitive and specific. Eubacterial PCR assay exhibited positive results for 46 clinical isolates from which 43 samples were detected by real time PCR assay. The sensitivity of the assay is about 93.7% in blind test isolates. The PCR results were reconfirmed using the conventional culture method. This assay has the potential to be a rapid, accurate and highly sensitive molecular diagnostic tool for simultaneous detection of Escherichia coli, Staphylococcus aureus, Streptococcus pneumoniae, Klebsiella pneumoniae, Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Acinetobacter spp. This assay has the potential to detect nosocomial pathogens within 5 to 6 hours, helping to initiate infection control measures and appropriate treatment in paediatric and elderly (old aged) patients, pre-and post surgery patients and organ transplant patients and thus reduces their hospitalization duration.
Molecular Epidemiology of Chikungunya Virus by Sequencing

Thayan R, Yusof MA, Saat Z, Sekaran SD, Wang SM

Methods Mol Biol, 2016;1426:11-9.
PMID: 27233257 DOI: 10.1007/978-1-4939-3618-2_2

Molecular surveillance of Chikungunya virus (CHIKV) is important as it provides data on the circulating CHIKV genotypes in endemic countries and enabling activation of measures to be taken in the event of a pending outbreak. Molecular surveillance is carried out by first detecting CHIKV in susceptible humans or among field-caught mosquitoes. This is followed by sequencing a selected region of the virus which will provide evidence on the source of the virus and possible association of the virus to increased cases of Chikungunya infections.

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