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Fulltext The Main Risk Factors of Nipah Disease and Its Risk Analysis in China

Yu J, Lv X, Yang Z, Gao S, Li C, Cai Y, et al.

Viruses, 2018 10 19;10(10).
PMID: 30347642 DOI: 10.3390/v10100572

Nipah disease is a highly fatal zoonosis which is caused by the Nipah virus. The Nipah virus is a BSL-4 virus with fruit bats being its natural host. It is mainly prevalent in Southeast Asia. The virus was first discovered in 1997 in Negeri Sembilan, Malaysia. Currently, it is mainly harmful to pigs and humans with a high mortality rate. This study describes the route of transmission of the Nipah virus in different countries and analyzes the possibility of the primary disease being in China and the method of its transmission to China. The risk factors are analyzed for different susceptible populations to Nipah disease. The aim is to improve people's risk awareness and prevention and control of the disease and reduce its risk of occurring and spreading in China.

Matched MeSH terms: Swine Diseases/epidemiology; Swine Diseases/virology*
First molecular detection of porcine bocavirus in Malaysia

Mohan Jacob D, Lee CY, Arshad SS, Selvarajah GT, Bande F, Ong BL, et al.

Trop Anim Health Prod, 2018 Apr;50(4):733-739.
PMID: 29243138 DOI: 10.1007/s11250-017-1489-z

Several strains of porcine bocaviruses have been reported worldwide since their first detection in Sweden in 2009. Subsequently, the virus has been reported to be associated with gastrointestinal and respiratory signs in weaner and grower pigs. Although Malaysia is host to a self-sufficient swine livestock industry, there is no study that describes porcine bocavirus in the country. This report is the first to describe porcine bocavirus (PBoV) in Malaysian swine herds. PBoV was identified in various tissues from sick and runt pigs using the conventional PCR method with primers targeting conserved regions encoding for the nonstructural protein (NS1) gene. Out of 103 samples tested from 17 pigs, 32 samples from 15 pigs were positive for porcine bocavirus. In addition, a higher detection rate was identified from mesenteric lymph nodes (52.9%), followed by tonsil (37.0%), and lungs (33.3%). Pairwise comparison and phylogenetic analyses based on a 658-bp fragment of NS1 gene revealed that the Malaysian PBoV strains are highly similar to PBoV3 isolated in Minnesota, USA. The presence of porcine bocavirus in Malaysia and their phylogenetic bond was marked for the first time by this study. Further studies will establish the molecular epidemiology of PBoV in Malaysia and clarify pathogenicity of the local isolates.

Matched MeSH terms: Swine Diseases/diagnosis; Swine Diseases/virology*
Nipah virus strain variation

Pulliam JR, Field HE, Olival KJ, Henipavirus Ecology Research Group

Emerg Infect Dis, 2005 Dec;11(12):1978-9; author reply 1979.
PMID: 16485499
Matched MeSH terms: Swine Diseases/epidemiology; Swine Diseases/virology*
Australia's vital assistance to Asian nations fighting serious infectious diseases

Murray G

Aust Vet J, 1999 May;77(5):339.
PMID: 10376108
Matched MeSH terms: Swine Diseases/prevention & control*; Swine Diseases/transmission
Testing Eurasian wild boar piglets for serum antibodies against Mycobacterium bovis

Che' Amat A, González-Barrio D, Ortiz JA, Díez-Delgado I, Boadella M, Barasona JA, et al.

Prev Vet Med, 2015 Sep 1;121(1-2):93-8.
PMID: 26051843 DOI: 10.1016/j.prevetmed.2015.05.011

Animal tuberculosis (TB) caused by infection with Mycobacterium bovis and closely related members of the M. tuberculosis complex (MTC), is often reported in the Eurasian wild boar (Sus scrofa). Tests detecting antibodies against MTC antigens are valuable tools for TB monitoring and control in suids. However, only limited knowledge exists on serology test performance in 2-6 month-old piglets. In this age-class, recent infections might cause lower antibody levels and lower test sensitivity. We examined 126 wild boar piglets from a TB-endemic site using 6 antibody detection tests in order to assess test performance. Bacterial culture (n=53) yielded a M. bovis infection prevalence of 33.9%, while serum antibody prevalence estimated by different tests ranged from 19% to 38%, reaching sensitivities between 15.4% and 46.2% for plate ELISAs and between 61.5% and 69.2% for rapid immunochromatographic tests based on dual path platform (DPP) technology. The Cohen kappa coefficient of agreement between DPP WTB (Wildlife TB) assay and culture results was moderate (0.45) and all other serological tests used had poor to fair agreements. This survey revealed the ability of several tests for detecting serum antibodies against the MTC antigens in 2-6 month-old naturally infected wild boar piglets. The best performance was demonstrated for DPP tests. The results confirmed our initial hypothesis of a lower sensitivity of serology for detecting M. bovis-infected piglets, as compared to older wild boar. Certain tests, notably the rapid animal-side tests, can contribute to TB control strategies by enabling the setup of test and cull schemes or improving pre-movement testing. However, sub-optimal test performance in piglets as compared to that in older wild boar should be taken into account.

Matched MeSH terms: Swine Diseases/diagnosis*; Swine Diseases/microbiology
Nipah virus--a potential agent of bioterrorism?

Lam SK

Antiviral Res, 2003 Jan;57(1-2):113-9.
PMID: 12615307

Nipah virus, a newly emerging deadly paramyxovirus isolated during a large outbreak of viral encephalitis in Malaysia, has many of the physical attributes to serve as a potential agent of bioterrorism. The outbreak caused widespread panic and fear because of its high mortality and the inability to control the disease initially. There were considerable social disruptions and tremendous economic loss to an important pig-rearing industry. This highly virulent virus, believed to be introduced into pig farms by fruit bats, spread easily among pigs and was transmitted to humans who came into close contact with infected animals. From pigs, the virus was also transmitted to other animals such as dogs, cats, and horses. The Nipah virus has the potential to be considered an agent of bioterrorism.

Matched MeSH terms: Swine Diseases/epidemiology*; Swine Diseases/virology
Emergence of Nipah virus in Malaysia

Uppal PK

Ann N Y Acad Sci, 2000;916:354-7.
PMID: 11193645

A pig-borne virus causing viral encephalitis amongst human beings in Malaysia was detected in 1997 by the Ministry of Health. Initially, the disease was considered to be Japanese encephalitis. Subsequently, it was thought to be a Hendra-like viral encephalitis, but on 10th April, 1999 the Minister of Health announced this mysterious and deadly virus to be a new virus named Nipah virus. The virus was characterized at CDC, Atlanta, Georgia. The gene sequencing of the enveloped virus revealed that one of the genes had 21% difference in the nucleotide sequence with about 8% difference in the amino acid sequence from Hendra virus isolated from horses in Australia in 1994. The virus was named after the village Nipah. In all, the Ministry of Health declared 101 human casualties, and 900,000 pigs were culled by April, 1999. The worst affected area in Malaysia was Negri Sembilan. The symptoms, incubation period in human being and pigs, animal to human transmission, threat of disease to other livestock, and control program adopted in Malaysia is described.

Matched MeSH terms: Swine Diseases/transmission; Swine Diseases/virology
Fulltext Evidence of exposure to henipaviruses in domestic pigs in Uganda

Atherstone C, Diederich S, Weingartl HM, Fischer K, Balkema-Buschmann A, Grace D, et al.

Transbound Emerg Dis, 2019 Mar;66(2):921-928.
PMID: 30576076 DOI: 10.1111/tbed.13105

Hendra virus (HeV) and Nipah virus (NiV), belonging to the genus Henipavirus, are among the most pathogenic of viruses in humans. Old World fruit bats (family Pteropodidae) are the natural reservoir hosts. Molecular and serological studies found evidence of henipavirus infection in fruit bats from several African countries. However, little is known about the potential for spillover into domestic animals in East Africa, particularly pigs, which served as amplifying hosts during the first outbreak of NiV in Malaysia and Singapore. We collected sera from 661 pigs presented for slaughter in Uganda between December 2015 and October 2016. Using HeV G and NiV G indirect ELISAs, 14 pigs (2%) were seroreactive in at least one ELISA. Seroprevalence increased to 5.4% in October 2016, when pigs were 9.5 times more likely to be seroreactive than pigs sampled in December 2015 (p = 0.04). Eight of the 14 ELISA-positive samples reacted with HeV N antigen in Western blot. None of the sera neutralized HeV or NiV in plaque reduction neutralization tests. Although we did not detect neutralizing antibodies, our results suggest that pigs in Uganda are exposed to henipaviruses or henipa-like viruses. Pigs in this study were sourced from many farms throughout Uganda, suggesting multiple (albeit rare) introductions of henipaviruses into the pig population. We postulate that given the widespread distribution of Old World fruit bats in Africa, spillover of henipaviruses from fruit bats to pigs in Uganda could result in exposure of pigs at multiple locations. A higher risk of a spillover event at the end of the dry season might be explained by higher densities of bats and contact with pigs at this time of the year, exacerbated by nutritional stress in bat populations and their reproductive cycle. Future studies should prioritize determining the risk of spillover of henipaviruses from pigs to people, so that potential risks can be mitigated.

Matched MeSH terms: Swine Diseases/epidemiology*; Swine Diseases/virology
Production and characterization of monoclonal antibodies against formalin-inactivated Nipah virus isolated from the lungs of a pig

Imada T, Abdul Rahman MA, Kashiwazaki Y, Tanimura N, Syed Hassan S, Jamaluddin A

J Vet Med Sci, 2004 Jan;66(1):81-3.
PMID: 14960818

Eight clones of monoclonal antibodies (Mabs) to Nipah virus (NV) were produced against formalin-inactivated NV antigens. They reacted positive by indirect immunofluorescent antibody test, and one of them also demonstrated virus neutralizing activity. They were classified into six different types based on their biological properties. These Mabs will be useful for immunodiagnosis of NV infections in animals and further research studies involving the genomes and proteins of NV.

Matched MeSH terms: Swine Diseases/epidemiology; Swine Diseases/virology*
Diversity of influenza A viruses retrieved from respiratory disease outbreaks and subclinically infected herds in Spain (2017-2019)

Sosa Portugal S, Cortey M, Tello M, Casanovas C, Mesonero-Escuredo S, Barrabés S, et al.

Transbound Emerg Dis, 2021 Mar;68(2):519-530.
PMID: 32619306 DOI: 10.1111/tbed.13709

The present study was aimed to assess the diversity of influenza A viruses (IAV) circulating in pig farms in the Iberian Peninsula. The study included two different situations: farms suffering respiratory disease outbreaks compatible with IAV (n = 211) and randomly selected farms without overt respiratory disease (n = 19). Initially, the presence of IAV and lineage determination was assessed by qRT-PCR using nasal swabs. IAV was confirmed in 145 outbreaks (68.7%), mostly in nurseries (53/145; 36.5%). Subtyping by RT-qPCR was possible in 94 of those cases being H1avN2hu (33.6%), H1avN1av (24.3%) and H1huN2hu (18.7%), the most common lineages. H3huN2hu and H1pdmN1pdm represented 7.5% and 6.5% of the cases, respectively. As for the randomly selected farms, 15/19 (78.9%) were positive for IAV. Again, the virus was mostly found in nurseries and H1avN2hu was the predominant lineage. Virus isolation in MDCK cells was attempted from positive cases. Sixty of the isolates were fully sequenced with Illumina MiSeq®. Within those 60 isolates, the most frequent genotypes had internal genes of avian origin, and these were D (19/60; 31.7%) and A (11/60; 18.3%), H1avN2hu and H1avN1av, respectively. In addition, seven previously unreported genotypes were identified. In two samples, more than one H or N were found and it was not possible to precisely establish their genotypes. A great diversity was observed in the phylogenetic analysis. Notably, four H3 sequences clustered with human isolates from 2004-05 (Malaysia and Denmark) that were considered uncommon in pigs. Overall, this study indicates that IAV is a very common agent in respiratory disease outbreaks in Spanish pig farms. The genetic diversity of this virus is continuously expanding with clear changes in the predominant subtypes and lineages in relatively short periods of time. The current genotyping scheme has to be enlarged to include the new genotypes that could be found in the future.

Matched MeSH terms: Swine Diseases/epidemiology; Swine Diseases/virology*
Fulltext Porcine cysticercosis (Taenia solium and Taenia asiatica): mapping occurrence and areas potentially at risk in East and Southeast Asia

Braae UC, Hung NM, Satrija F, Khieu V, Zhou XN, Willingham AL

Parasit Vectors, 2018 Nov 29;11(1):613.
PMID: 30497522 DOI: 10.1186/s13071-018-3203-z

BACKGROUND: Due to the relative short life span and the limited spatial movement, porcine cysticercosis is an excellent indicator of current local active transmission. The aim of this study was to map at province-level, the occurrence of T. solium and T. asiatica in pigs and areas at risk of transmission to pigs in East and Southeast Asia, based on the density of extensive pig production systems and confirmed reports of porcine cysticercosis.
METHODS: This study covered East and Southeast Asia, which consist of the following countries: Brunei, Cambodia, China, East Timor, Indonesia, Japan, Laos, Malaysia, Mongolia, Myanmar, North Korea, Philippines, Singapore, South Korea, Thailand and Vietnam. Literature searches were carried out to identify current epidemiological data on the occurrence of porcine cysticercosis caused by T. solium and T. asiatica infections. Modelled densities of pigs in extensive production systems were mapped and compared to available data on porcine cysticercosis.
RESULTS: Porcine cysticercosis was confirmed to be present during the period 2000 to 2018 in eight out of the 16 countries included in this study. Taenia solium porcine cysticercosis was confirmed from all eight countries, whereas only one country (Laos) could confirm the presence of T. asiatica porcine cysticercosis. Province-level occurrence was identified in five countries (Cambodia, Indonesia, Laos, Myanmar, and Vietnam) across 19 provinces. Smallholder pig keeping is believed to be widely distributed throughout the region, with greater densities predicted to occur in areas of China, Myanmar, Philippines and Vietnam.
CONCLUSIONS: The discrepancies between countries reporting taeniosis and the occurrence of porcine cysticercosis, both for T. solium and T. asiatica, suggests that both parasites are underreported. More epidemiological surveys are needed to determine the societal burden of both parasites. This study highlights a straightforward approach to determine areas at risk of porcine cysticercosis in the absence of prevalence data.

Matched MeSH terms: Swine Diseases/epidemiology; Swine Diseases/parasitology*
Human case of Onchocerca dewittei japonica infection in Fukushima, Northeastern Honshu, Japan

Fukuda M, Uni S, Igari T, Utsumi Y, Otsuka Y, Nakatani J, et al.

Parasitol Int, 2019 Oct;72:101943.
PMID: 31220633 DOI: 10.1016/j.parint.2019.101943

A 73-year-old man living in Kawamata-machi, Fukushima Prefecture, Northeastern Honshu, Japan, visited a hospital with complaints of a subcutaneous swelling that had developed on the back of his left hand. The nodule was surgically removed from the vagina fibrosa tendinis of his left forefinger. Based on the histopathological characteristics, the causative agent of this nodule was identified as a female Onchocerca dewittei japonica (Spirurida: Onchocercidae). The species identification was confirmed by cox1 gene sequencing of the worm tissues from paraffin-embedded sections of the nodule. Although 11 cases of zoonotic onchocercosis have previously been recorded in Kyushu and Western Honshu, Japan, the present findings represent the first human case of infection with O. dewittei japonica in Northeastern Honshu, Japan.

Matched MeSH terms: Swine Diseases/parasitology; Swine Diseases/transmission*
Fulltext Current status of Blastocystis sp. in animals from Southeast Asia: a review

Rauff-Adedotun AA, Mohd Zain SN, Farah Haziqah MT

Parasitol Res, 2020 Nov;119(11):3559-3570.
PMID: 32951145 DOI: 10.1007/s00436-020-06828-8

Blastocystis is the most frequently observed eukaryotic gastrointestinal symbiont in humans and animals. Its low host specificity and zoonotic potential suggest that animals might serve as possible reservoirs for transmission. The prevalence and subtype distributions of Blastocystis sp. in animal populations in Southeast Asia, a hotspot for zoonotic diseases, are reviewed. Recommendations for future research aimed at understanding the zoonotic role of Blastocystis are also included. Seven countries have, so far, reported Blastocystis infection in various animals, such as livestock, poultry, companion animals, and non-human primates. Pigs were the most studied animals, and there were records of 100% prevalence in pigs, cattle, and ostriches. Using polymerase chain reaction (PCR)-based approaches, twelve Blastocystis sp. subtypes (STs), namely ST1, ST2, ST3, ST4, ST5, ST6, ST7, ST8, ST9, ST10, ST12, and ST14 have been recognised infecting animals of Southeast Asia. ST1 and ST5 were the most frequently identified, and Malaysia observed the most diverse distribution of subtypes. Further investigations on Blastocystis sp. in various animal hosts, using adequate sample sizes and uniform detection methods, are essential for a better understanding of the distribution of this organism. Detailed genome studies, especially on STs shared by humans and animals, are also recommended.

Matched MeSH terms: Swine Diseases/epidemiology; Swine Diseases/parasitology
Low levels of meticillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus in pigs in Malaysia

Khalid KA, Zakaria Z, Toung OP, McOrist S

Vet Rec, 2009 May 16;164(20):626-7.
PMID: 19448256
Matched MeSH terms: Swine Diseases/microbiology*; Swine Diseases/epidemiology*
Update: outbreak of Nipah virus--Malaysia and Singapore, 1999

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC)

MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep, 1999 Apr 30;48(16):335-7.
PMID: 10366143

During March 1999, health officials in Malaysia and Singapore, in collaboration with Australian researchers and CDC, investigated reports of febrile encephalitic and respiratory illnesses among workers who had exposure to pigs. A previously unrecognized paramyxovirus (formerly known as Hendra-like virus), now called Nipah virus, was implicated by laboratory testing in many of these cases. Febrile encephalitis continues to be reported in Malaysia but has decreased coincident with mass culling of pigs in outbreak areas. No new cases of febrile illness associated with Nipah virus infection have been identified in Singapore since March 19, 1999, when abattoirs were closed. This report summarizes interim findings from ongoing epidemiologic and laboratory investigations in Malaysia and Singapore.

Matched MeSH terms: Swine Diseases/transmission; Swine Diseases/virology
New virus emerges in Malaysia

Caplan CE

CMAJ, 1999 Jun 1;160(11):1607.
PMID: 10374006
Matched MeSH terms: Swine Diseases/transmission; Swine Diseases/virology*
Purification and characterization of Nipah virus nucleocapsid protein produced in insect cells

Eshaghi M, Tan WS, Ong ST, Yusoff K

J Clin Microbiol, 2005 Jul;43(7):3172-7.
PMID: 16000431

The nucleocapsid (N) protein of Nipah virus (NiV) is a major constituent of the viral proteins which play a role in encapsidation, regulating the transcription and replication of the viral genome. To investigate the use of a fusion system to aid the purification of the recombinant N protein for structural studies and potential use as a diagnostic reagent, the NiV N gene was cloned into the pFastBacHT vector and the His-tagged fusion protein was expressed in Sf9 insect cells by recombinant baculovirus. Western blot analysis of the recombinant fusion protein with anti-NiV antibodies produced a band of approximately 62 kDa. A time course study showed that the highest level of expression was achieved after 3 days of incubation. Electron microscopic analysis of the NiV recombinant N fusion protein purified on a nickel-nitrilotriacetic acid resin column revealed different types of structures, including spherical, ring-like, and herringbone-like particles. The light-scattering measurements of the recombinant N protein also confirmed the polydispersity of the sample with hyrdrodynamic radii of small and large types. The optical density spectra of the purified recombinant fusion protein revealed a high A(260)/A(280) ratio, indicating the presence of nucleic acids. Western blotting and enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay results showed that the recombinant N protein exhibited the antigenic sites and conformation necessary for specific antigen-antibody recognition.

Matched MeSH terms: Swine Diseases/diagnosis; Swine Diseases/virology
Fulltext Nipah virus infection in dogs, Malaysia, 1999

Mills JN, Alim AN, Bunning ML, Lee OB, Wagoner KD, Amman BR, et al.

Emerg Infect Dis, 2009 Jun;15(6):950-2.
PMID: 19523300 DOI: 10.3201/eid1506.080453

The 1999 outbreak of Nipah virus encephalitis in humans and pigs in Peninsular Malaysia ended with the evacuation of humans and culling of pigs in the epidemic area. Serologic screening showed that, in the absence of infected pigs, dogs were not a secondary reservoir for Nipah virus.

Matched MeSH terms: Swine Diseases/epidemiology; Swine Diseases/virology
Fulltext Serological evidence of henipavirus exposure in cattle, goats and pigs in Bangladesh

Chowdhury S, Khan SU, Crameri G, Epstein JH, Broder CC, Islam A, et al.

PLoS Negl Trop Dis, 2014 Nov;8(11):e3302.
PMID: 25412358 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pntd.0003302

BACKGROUND: Nipah virus (NiV) is an emerging disease that causes severe encephalitis and respiratory illness in humans. Pigs were identified as an intermediate host for NiV transmission in Malaysia. In Bangladesh, NiV has caused recognized human outbreaks since 2001 and three outbreak investigations identified an epidemiological association between close contact with sick or dead animals and human illness.
METHODOLOGY: We examined cattle and goats reared around Pteropus bat roosts in human NiV outbreak areas. We also tested pig sera collected under another study focused on Japanese encephalitis.
PRINCIPAL FINDINGS: We detected antibodies against NiV glycoprotein in 26 (6.5%) cattle, 17 (4.3%) goats and 138 (44.2%) pigs by a Luminex-based multiplexed microsphere assay; however, these antibodies did not neutralize NiV. Cattle and goats with NiVsG antibodies were more likely to have a history of feeding on fruits partially eaten by bats or birds (PR=3.1, 95% CI 1.6-5.7) and drinking palmyra palm juice (PR=3.9, 95% CI 1.5-10.2).
CONCLUSIONS: This difference in test results may be due to the exposure of animals to one or more novel viruses with antigenic similarity to NiV. Further research may identify a novel organism of public health importance.

Matched MeSH terms: Swine Diseases/blood; Swine Diseases/epidemiology*; Swine Diseases/virology
Fulltext Agricultural intensification, priming for persistence and the emergence of Nipah virus: a lethal bat-borne zoonosis

Pulliam JR, Epstein JH, Dushoff J, Rahman SA, Bunning M, Jamaluddin AA, et al.

J R Soc Interface, 2012 Jan 7;9(66):89-101.
PMID: 21632614 DOI: 10.1098/rsif.2011.0223

Emerging zoonoses threaten global health, yet the processes by which they emerge are complex and poorly understood. Nipah virus (NiV) is an important threat owing to its broad host and geographical range, high case fatality, potential for human-to-human transmission and lack of effective prevention or therapies. Here, we investigate the origin of the first identified outbreak of NiV encephalitis in Malaysia and Singapore. We analyse data on livestock production from the index site (a commercial pig farm in Malaysia) prior to and during the outbreak, on Malaysian agricultural production, and from surveys of NiV's wildlife reservoir (flying foxes). Our analyses suggest that repeated introduction of NiV from wildlife changed infection dynamics in pigs. Initial viral introduction produced an explosive epizootic that drove itself to extinction but primed the population for enzootic persistence upon reintroduction of the virus. The resultant within-farm persistence permitted regional spread and increased the number of human infections. This study refutes an earlier hypothesis that anomalous El Niño Southern Oscillation-related climatic conditions drove emergence and suggests that priming for persistence drove the emergence of a novel zoonotic pathogen. Thus, we provide empirical evidence for a causative mechanism previously proposed as a precursor to widespread infection with H5N1 avian influenza and other emerging pathogens.

Matched MeSH terms: Swine Diseases/epidemiology*; Swine Diseases/transmission; Swine Diseases/virology

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