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From forest landscape to agricultural landscape in the developing tropical country of Malaysia: pattern, process, and their significance on policy

Abdullah SA, Hezri AA

Environ Manage, 2008 Nov;42(5):907-17.
PMID: 18626684 DOI: 10.1007/s00267-008-9178-3

Agricultural expansion and deforestation are spatial processes of land transformation that impact on landscape pattern. In peninsular Malaysia, the conversion of forested areas into two major cash crops--rubber and oil palm plantations--has been identified as driving significant environmental change. To date, there has been insufficient literature studying the link between changes in landscape patterns and land-related development policies. Therefore, this paper examines: (i) the links between development policies and changes in land use/land cover and landscape pattern and (ii) the significance and implications of these links for future development policies. The objective is to generate insights on the changing process of land use/land cover and landscape pattern as a functional response to development policies and their consequences for environmental conditions. Over the last century, the development of cash crops has changed the country from one dominated by natural landscapes to one dominated by agricultural landscapes. But the last decade of the century saw urbanization beginning to impact significantly. This process aligned with the establishment of various development policies, from land development for agriculture between the mid 1950s and the 1970s to an emphasis on manufacturing from the 1980s onward. Based on a case study in Selangor, peninsular Malaysia, a model of landscape pattern change is presented. It contains three stages according to the relative importance of rubber (first stage: 1900--1950s), oil palm (second stage: 1960s--1970s), and urban (third stage: 1980s--1990s) development that influenced landscape fragmentation and heterogeneity. The environmental consequences of this change have been depicted through loss of biodiversity, geohazard incidences, and the spread of vector-borne diseases. The spatial ecological information can be useful to development policy formulation, allowing diagnosis of the country's "health" and sustainability. The final section outlines the usefulness of landscape analysis in the policy-making process to prevent further fragmentation of the landscape and forest loss in Malaysia in the face of rapid economic development.
A game of Chinese whispers in Malaysia: contextual analysis of child road safety education

Puvanachandra P, Kulanthayan S, Hyder AA

Qual Health Res, 2012 Nov;22(11):1476-85.
PMID: 22910586 DOI: 10.1177/1049732312457245

In 2006, the Malaysian government began implementing road safety education (RSE) programs in primary schools, involving numerous stakeholders. We interviewed 19 stakeholders. Thematic analysis led to the identification of four themes: road traffic injuries (RTIs) among children in Malaysia, the role of RSE, factors affecting successful implementation, and intersectoral involvement. The latter was identified as a significant strength of the overall approach to implementation, and is one of the first examples in Malaysia and in the region of such an approach. Lack of official documentation surrounding ownership, funding responsibilities, and roles among the various sectors led to resistance from some groups. Although we know from scientific studies what works in terms of reducing RTIs, the more important question is how such interventions can be successfully and sustainably implemented, particularly in low- and middle-income countries (LMIC). The results of this study permit stronger understanding of issues surrounding the implementation of RTI interventions in LMIC.
Fulltext A new multiconstraint method for determining the optimal cable stresses in cable-stayed bridges

Asgari B, Osman SA, Adnan A

ScientificWorldJournal, 2014;2014:503016.
PMID: 25050400 DOI: 10.1155/2014/503016

Cable-stayed bridges are one of the most popular types of long-span bridges. The structural behaviour of cable-stayed bridges is sensitive to the load distribution between the girder, pylons, and cables. The determination of pretensioning cable stresses is critical in the cable-stayed bridge design procedure. By finding the optimum stresses in cables, the load and moment distribution of the bridge can be improved. In recent years, different research works have studied iterative and modern methods to find optimum stresses of cables. However, most of the proposed methods have limitations in optimising the structural performance of cable-stayed bridges. This paper presents a multiconstraint optimisation method to specify the optimum cable forces in cable-stayed bridges. The proposed optimisation method produces less bending moments and stresses in the bridge members and requires shorter simulation time than other proposed methods. The results of comparative study show that the proposed method is more successful in restricting the deck and pylon displacements and providing uniform deck moment distribution than unit load method (ULM). The final design of cable-stayed bridges can be optimised considerably through proposed multiconstraint optimisation method.
Fulltext Development of p-y curves of laterally loaded piles in cohesionless soil

Khari M, Kassim KA, Adnan A

ScientificWorldJournal, 2014;2014:917174.
PMID: 24574932 DOI: 10.1155/2014/917174

The research on damages of structures that are supported by deep foundations has been quite intensive in the past decade. Kinematic interaction in soil-pile interaction is evaluated based on the p-y curve approach. Existing p-y curves have considered the effects of relative density on soil-pile interaction in sandy soil. The roughness influence of the surface wall pile on p-y curves has not been emphasized sufficiently. The presented study was performed to develop a series of p-y curves for single piles through comprehensive experimental investigations. Modification factors were studied, namely, the effects of relative density and roughness of the wall surface of pile. The model tests were subjected to lateral load in Johor Bahru sand. The new p-y curves were evaluated based on the experimental data and were compared to the existing p-y curves. The soil-pile reaction for various relative density (from 30% to 75%) was increased in the range of 40-95% for a smooth pile at a small displacement and 90% at a large displacement. For rough pile, the ratio of dense to loose relative density soil-pile reaction was from 2.0 to 3.0 at a small to large displacement. Direct comparison of the developed p-y curve shows significant differences in the magnitude and shapes with the existing load-transfer curves. Good comparison with the experimental and design studies demonstrates the multidisciplinary applications of the present method.
Fulltext An experimental study on pile spacing effects under lateral loading in sand

Khari M, Kassim KA, Adnan A

ScientificWorldJournal, 2013;2013:734292.
PMID: 24453900 DOI: 10.1155/2013/734292

Grouped and single pile behavior differs owing to the impacts of the pile-to-pile interaction. Ultimate lateral resistance and lateral subgrade modulus within a pile group are known as the key parameters in the soil-pile interaction phenomenon. In this study, a series of experimental investigation was carried out on single and group pile subjected to monotonic lateral loadings. Experimental investigations were conducted on twelve model pile groups of configurations 1 × 2, 1 × 3, 2 × 2, 3 × 3, and 3 × 2 for embedded length-to-diameter ratio l/d = 32 into loose and dense sand, spacing from 3 to 6 pile diameter, in parallel and series arrangement. The tests were performed in dry sand from Johor Bahru, Malaysia. To reconstruct the sand samples, the new designed apparatus, Mobile Pluviator, was adopted. The ultimate lateral load is increased 53% in increasing of s/d from 3 to 6 owing to effects of sand relative density. An increasing of the number of piles in-group decreases the group efficiency owing to the increasing of overlapped stress zones and active wedges. A ratio of s/d more than 6d is large enough to eliminate the pile-to-pile interaction and the group effects. It may be more in the loose sand.
Cryptocaryon irritans recombinant proteins as potential antigens for sero-surveillance of cryptocaryonosis

Lokanathan Y, Mohd-Adnan A, Kua BC, Nathan S

J Fish Dis, 2016 Sep;39(9):1069-83.
PMID: 27086498 DOI: 10.1111/jfd.12474

Cryptocaryonosis is a major problem for mariculture, and the absence of suitable sero-surveillance tools for the detection of cryptocaryonosis makes it difficult to screen Cryptocaryon irritans-infected fish, particularly asymptomatic fish. In this study, we proposed a serum-based assay using selected C. irritans proteins to screen infected and asymptomatic fish. Eight highly expressed genes were chosen from an earlier study on C. irritans expressed sequence tags and ciliate glutamine codons were converted to universal glutamine codons. The chemically synthesized C. irritans genes were then expressed in an Escherichia coli expression host under optimized conditions. Five C. irritans proteins were successfully expressed in E. coli and purified by affinity chromatography. These proteins were used as antigens in an enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) to screen sera from experimentally immunized fish and naturally infected fish. Sera from both categories of fish reacted equally well with the expressed C. irritans recombinant proteins as well as with sonicated theronts. This study demonstrated the utility of producing ciliate recombinant proteins in a heterologous expression host. An ELISA was successfully developed to diagnose infected and asymptomatic fish using the recombinant proteins as antigens.
Fulltext Effects of aquatic exercise on physical function and fitness among people with spinal cord injury: A systematic review

Li C, Khoo S, Adnan A

Medicine (Baltimore), 2017 Mar;96(11):e6328.
PMID: 28296754 DOI: 10.1097/MD.0000000000006328

OBJECTIVE: The aim of this review is to synthesize the evidence on the effects of aquatic exercise interventions on physical function and fitness among people with spinal cord injury.
DATA SOURCE: Six major databases were searched from inception till June 2015: MEDLINE, CINAHL, EMBASE, PsychInfo, SPORTDiscus, and Cochrane Center Register of Controlled Trials.
STUDY APPRAISAL AND SYNTHESIS METHODS: Two reviewers independently rated methodological quality using the modified Downs and Black Scale and extracted and synthesized key findings (i.e., participant characteristics, study design, physical function and fitness outcomes, and adverse events).
RESULTS: Eight of 276 studies met the inclusion criteria, of which none showed high research quality. Four studies assessed physical function outcomes and 4 studies evaluated aerobic fitness as outcome measures. Significant improvements on these 2 outcomes were generally found. Other physical or fitness outcomes including body composition, muscular strength, and balance were rarely reported.
CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS OF KEY FINDINGS: There is weak evidence supporting aquatic exercise training to improve physical function and aerobic fitness among adults with spinal cord injury. Suggestions for future research include reporting details of exercise interventions, evaluating other physical or fitness outcomes, and improving methodological quality.
Fulltext Phylogenetic analyses uncover a novel clade of transferrin in nonmammalian vertebrates

Mohd-Padil H, Mohd-Adnan A, Gabaldón T

Mol Biol Evol, 2013 Apr;30(4):894-905.
PMID: 23258311 DOI: 10.1093/molbev/mss325

Transferrin is a protein super-family involved in iron transport, a central process in cellular homeostasis. Throughout the evolution of vertebrates, transferrin members have diversified into distinct subfamilies including serotransferrin, ovotransferrin, lactoferrin, melanotransferrin, the inhibitor of carbonic anhydrase, pacifastin, and the major yolk protein in sea urchin. Previous phylogenetic analyses have established the branching order of the diverse transferrin subfamilies but were mostly focused on the transferrin repertoire present in mammals. Here, we conduct a comprehensive phylogenetic analysis of transferrin protein sequences in sequenced vertebrates, placing a special focus on the less-studied nonmammalian vertebrates. Our analyses uncover a novel transferrin clade present across fish, sauropsid, and amphibian genomes but strikingly absent from mammals. Our reconstructed scenario implies that this novel class emerged through a duplication event at the vertebrate ancestor, and that it was subsequently lost in the lineage leading to mammals. We detect footprints of accelerated evolution following the duplication event, which suggest positive selection and early functional divergence of this novel clade. Interestingly, the loss of this novel class of transferrin in mammals coincided with the divergence by duplication of lactoferrin and serotransferrin in this lineage. Altogether, our results provide novel insights on the evolution of iron-binding proteins in the various vertebrate groups.
Fulltext Study on the drying performance and milling quality of dried paddy using inclined bed dryers in two different paddy mills located in MADA and IADA KETARA

Sahari, Y., Abdul Wahid, R., Mhd Adnan, A. S., Sairi, M., Hosni, H., Engku Abdullah, E. H., et al.

International Food Research Journal, 2018;25(6):2572-2578.
MyJurnal

The drying performance of industrial inclined bed dryer (IBD) and the milling quality of dried paddy was evaluated and compared in two main granary areas of Muda Agricultural Development Authority (MADA) and Integrated Agricultural Development Areas (IADA KETARA). A mix of MARDI’s paddy variety (MR 220 CL2 and MR 219) was used and the study on both granary area of MADA and IADA KETARA were carried out in local paddy mills located at Yan, Kedah and Besut, Terengganu respectively. The results indicated that the average drying rate in MADA was 119.93 kg water removed/hr whereas only 73.67 kg water removed/hr was recorded in IADA KETARA. Therefore, normalized water removal value of paddy mill in MADA was found higher than paddy mill in IADA KETARA. In terms of milling quality, average percentage of head rice yield of paddy mill in MADA and IADA KETARA was 76.89% and 73.87% respectively. The milling quality analysis of rice resulted from ANOVA found that there was no significant difference in the HRY and total broken between IBDs in both locations.
Fulltext Frequency and molecular epidemiology of Panton-Valentine leukocidin gene in Staphylococcus aureus colonising HIV-infected patients

Mohd-Zain Z, Mohd-Nawi SFA, Adnan A, Kumar S

Malays J Pathol, 2017 Aug;39(2):115-122.
PMID: 28866692 MyJurnal

BACKGROUND: HIV-infected patients pose a high risk of contracting skin and soft tissue infections caused by Staphylococcus aureus. Those who are colonized with methicillin-resistant S. aureus (MRSA) that carry Panton-Valentine leukocidin (PVL) are predisposed to severe infections that could lead to necrotic skin infections. However the association of S. aureus specifically methicillin sensitive S. aureus carrying PVL gene in HIV patients has not been widely reported. Here, we study the prevalence and the molecular epidemiology of PVL-producing S. aureus in HIV-infected patients.
METHODS: Swabs from four body sites of 129 HIV-infected patients were cultured for S. aureus and identified by standard microbiological procedures. The isolates were subjected to antimicrobial susceptibility testing by disk diffusion against penicillin, erythromycin, clindamycin, and cotrimoxazole. PCR was used to detect the PVL gene and genetic relationship between the isolates was determined by using pulse field gel electrophoresis.
RESULTS: A total of 51 isolates of S. aureus were obtained from 40 (31%) of the patients. The majority (43.1%) of the isolates were obtained from the anterior nares. Thirteen (25.5%) of all the isolates were resistant to more than one category of antibiotics, with one isolate identified as MRSA. Thirty-eight (74.5%) isolates (including the MRSA isolate) carried PVL gene where the majority (44.7%) of these isolates were from the anterior nares. A dendogram revealed that the isolates were genetically diverse with 37 distinct pulsotypes clustered in 11 groups.
CONCLUSION: S. aureus obtained from multiple sites of the HIV patients were genetically diverse without any clonality observed.
Engaging policy makers in road safety research in Malaysia: a theoretical and contextual analysis

Tran NT, Hyder AA, Kulanthayan S, Singh S, Umar RS

Health Policy, 2009 Apr;90(1):58-65.
PMID: 18937995 DOI: 10.1016/j.healthpol.2008.08.009

Road traffic injuries (RTIs) are a growing public health problem that must be addressed through evidence-based interventions including policy-level changes such as the enactment of legislation to mandate specific behaviors and practices. Policy makers need to be engaged in road safety research to ensure that road safety policies are grounded in scientific evidence. This paper examines the strategies used to engage policy makers and other stakeholder groups and discusses the challenges that result from a multi-disciplinary, inter-sectoral collaboration. A framework for engaging policy makers in research was developed and applied to describe an example of collective road safety research in Malaysia. Key components of this framework include readiness, assessment, planning, implementation/evaluation, and policy development/sustainability. The case study of a collaborative intervention trial for the prevention of motorcycle crashes and deaths in Malaysia serves as a model for policy engagement by road safety and injury researchers. The analytic description of this research process in Malaysia demonstrates that the framework, through its five stages, can be used as a tool to guide the integration of needed research evidence into policy for road safety and injury prevention.
Integrating ethics, health policy and health systems in low- and middle-income countries: case studies from Malaysia and Pakistan

Hyder AA, Merritt M, Ali J, Tran NT, Subramaniam K, Akhtar T

Bull World Health Organ, 2008 Aug;86(8):606-11.
PMID: 18797618

Scientific progress is a significant basis for change in public-health policy and practice, but the field also invests in value-laden concepts and responds daily to sociopolitical, cultural and evaluative concerns. The concepts that drive much of public-health practice are shaped by the collective and individual mores that define social systems. This paper seeks to describe the ethics processes in play when public-health mechanisms are established in low- and middle-income countries, by focusing on two cases where ethics played a crucial role in producing positive institutional change in public-health policy. First, we introduce an overview of the relationship between ethics and public health; second, we provide a conceptual framework for the ethical analysis of health system events, noting how this approach might enhance the power of existing frameworks; and third, we demonstrate the interplay of these frameworks through the analysis of a programme to enhance road safety in Malaysia and an initiative to establish a national ethics committee in Pakistan. We conclude that, while ethics are gradually being integrated into public-health policy decisions in many developing health systems, ethical analysis is often implicit and undervalued. This paper highlights the need to analyse public-health decision-making from an ethical perspective.
Fulltext Global childhood unintentional injury study: multisite surveillance data

He S, Lunnen JC, Puvanachandra P, Amar-Singh, Zia N, Hyder AA

Am J Public Health, 2014 Mar;104(3):e79-84.
PMID: 24432924 DOI: 10.2105/AJPH.2013.301607

We aimed to analyze the epidemiology of childhood unintentional injuries presenting to hospitals in 5 select sites in low- and middle-income countries (LMICs) (Bangladesh, Colombia, Egypt, Malaysia, and Pakistan).
Fulltext Prevalence and Associated Complication of Acute Kidney Injury Among Dengue Patients

Khan Y, Sarriff A, Khan AH, Adnan AS, Jummat F, Mallhi TH

Value Health, 2014 Nov;17(7):A811.
PMID: 27203069 DOI: 10.1016/j.jval.2014.08.551
Fulltext Cloning and characterisation of multiple ferritin isoforms in the Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar)

Lee JH, Pooley NJ, Mohd-Adnan A, Martin SA

PLoS One, 2014;9(7):e103729.
PMID: 25078784 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0103729

Ferritin is a highly-conserved iron-storage protein that has also been identified as an acute phase protein within the innate immune system. The iron-storage function is mediated through complementary roles played by heavy (H)-chain subunit as well as the light (L) in mammals or middle (M)-chain in teleosts, respectively. In this study, we report the identification of five ferritin subunits (H1, H2, M1, M2, M3) in the Atlantic salmon that were supported by the presence of iron-regulatory regions, gene structure, conserved domains and phylogenetic analysis. Tissue distribution analysis across eight different tissues showed that each of these isoforms is differentially expressed. We also examined the expression of the ferritin isoforms in the liver and kidney of juvenile Atlantic salmon that was challenged with Aeromonas salmonicida as well as in muscle cell culture stimulated with interleukin-1β. We found that each isoform displayed unique expression profiles, and in certain conditions the expressions between the isoforms were completely diametrical to each other. Our study is the first report of multiple ferritin isoforms from both the H- and M-chains in a vertebrate species, as well as ferritin isoforms that showed decreased expression in response to infection. Taken together, the results of our study suggest the possibility of functional differences between the H- and M-chain isoforms in terms of tissue localisation, transcriptional response to bacterial exposure and stimulation by specific immune factors.
Malignant melanoma masqueraded as ingrown toe nail

Adnan A, Bajuri MY, Shukur MH, Subanesh S, Das S

Clin Ter, 2014;165(1):41-5.
PMID: 24589950 DOI: 10.7471/CT.2014.1660

We report a case in a 62-year-old female who presented with a year history of dull aching pain of the left big toe, which was aggravated by pressure on the nail and relieved by analgesia. Tissue biopsy confirmed the diagnosis of malignant melanoma. There was a black colour swelling about 3x8 mm in size over the medial side of the dorsum of left big toe with a scar of previous operation. Histopathological examination showed on gross section of 2 blackish area one infiltrate the bone the other the tumour not infiltrate the proximal interphalangial joint with another satellite lesion 20mm from main tumour area was found. Malignant cells were large with abundant cytoplasm, hyperchromatic nuclei and some prominent eosinophilic nucleoli. Melanin pigment was markedly seen. The big toe was amputated. We here highlight a case where the patient was diagnosed and managed as having ingrown nail of the left big toe while in actual fact she had a subungual amelanotic melanoma.
Cryptocaryon irritans infection induces the acute phase response in Lates calcarifer: a transcriptomic perspective

Khoo CK, Abdul-Murad AM, Kua BC, Mohd-Adnan A

Fish Shellfish Immunol, 2012 Oct;33(4):788-94.
PMID: 22842150 DOI: 10.1016/j.fsi.2012.07.005

Cryptocaryoniasis (also known as marine white spot disease) is mediated by Cryptocaryon irritans. This obligate ectoparasitic protozoan infects virtually all marine teleosts, which includes Lates calcarifer, a highly valuable aquaculture species. Little is known about L. calcarifer-C. irritans interactions. This study was undertaken to gain an informative snapshot of the L. calcarifer transcriptomic response over the course of C. irritans infection. An in-house fabricated cDNA microarray slides containing 3872 probes from L. calcarifer liver and spleen cDNA libraries were used as a tool to investigate the response of L. calcarifer to C. irritans infection. Juvenile fish were infected with parasites for four days, and total RNA was extracted from liver tissue, which was harvested daily. We compared the transcriptomes of C. irritans-infected liver to uninfected liver over an infection period of four days; the comparison was used to identify the genes with altered expression levels in response to C. irritans infection. The greatest number of infection-modulated genes was recorded at 2 and 3 days post-infection. These genes were mainly associated with the immune response and were associated in particular with the acute phase response. Acute phase proteins such as hepcidin, C-type lectin and serum amyloid A are among the highly modulated genes. Our results indicate that an induced acute phase response in L. calcarifer toward C. irritans infection is similar to the responses observed in bacterial infections of teleosts. This response demonstrates the importance of first line defenses in teleost innate immune responses against ectoparasite infection.
Investigation of highly unsaturated fatty acid metabolism in the Asian sea bass, Lates calcarifer

Mohd-Yusof NY, Monroig O, Mohd-Adnan A, Wan KL, Tocher DR

Fish Physiol Biochem, 2010 Dec;36(4):827-43.
PMID: 20532815 DOI: 10.1007/s10695-010-9409-4

Lates calcarifer, commonly known as the Asian sea bass or barramundi, is an interesting species that has great aquaculture potential in Asia including Malaysia and also Australia. We have investigated essential fatty acid metabolism in this species, focusing on the endogenous highly unsaturated fatty acid (HUFA) synthesis pathway using both biochemical and molecular biological approaches. Fatty acyl desaturase (Fad) and elongase (Elovl) cDNAs were cloned and functional characterization identified them as ∆6 Fad and Elovl5 elongase enzymes, respectively. The ∆6 Fad was equally active toward 18:3n-3 and 18:2n-6, and Elovl5 exhibited elongation activity for C18-20 and C20-22 elongation and a trace of C22-24 activity. The tissue profile of gene expression for ∆6 fad and elovl5 genes, showed brain to have the highest expression of both genes compared to all other tissues. The results of tissue fatty acid analysis showed that the brain contained more docosahexaenoic acid (DHA, 22:6n-3) than flesh, liver and intestine. The HUFA synthesis activity in isolated hepatocytes and enterocytes using [1-(14)C]18:3n-3 as substrate was very low with the only desaturated product detected being 18:4n-3. These findings indicate that L. calcarifer display an essential fatty acid pattern similar to other marine fish in that they appear unable to synthesize HUFA from C18 substrates. High expression of ∆6 fad and elovl5 genes in brain may indicate a role for these enzymes in maintaining high DHA levels in neural tissues through conversion of 20:5n-3.
Fulltext Characterization of the functional domain of β2-microglobulin from the Asian seabass, Lates calcarifer

Mohd-Padil H, Tajul-Arifin K, Mohd-Adnan A

PLoS One, 2010;5(10):e13159.
PMID: 20949082 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0013159

β2-Microglobulin (β(2)M) is the light chain of major histocompatibility class I (MHC I) that binds non-covalently with the α heavy chain. Both proteins attach to the antigen peptide, presenting a complex to the T cell to be destroyed via the immune mechanism.
Eimeria tenella glucose-6-phosphate isomerase: molecular characterization and assessment as a target for anti-coccidial control

Loo SS, Blake DP, Mohd-Adnan A, Mohamed R, Wan KL

Parasitology, 2010 Jul;137(8):1169-77.
PMID: 20233491 DOI: 10.1017/S0031182010000119

Limitations with current chemotherapeutic and vaccinal control of coccidiosis caused by Eimeria species continue to prompt development of novel controls, including the identification of new drug targets. Glucose-6-phosphate isomerase (G6-PI) has been proposed as a valid drug target for many protozoa, although polymorphism revealed by electrophoretic enzyme mobility has raised doubts for Eimeria. In this study we identified and sequenced the Eimeria tenella G6-PI orthologue (EtG6-PI) from the reference Houghton strain and confirmed its position within the prevailing taxonomic hierarchy, branching with the Apicomplexa and Plantae, distinct from the Animalia including the host, Gallus gallus. Comparison of the deduced 1647 bp EtG6-PI coding sequence with the 9016 bp genomic locus revealed 15 exons, all of which obey the intron-AG-/exon/-GT-intron splicing rule. Comparison with the Weybridge and Wisconsin strains revealed the presence of 33 single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) and 14 insertion/deletion sites. Three SNPs were exonic and all yielded non-synonymous substitutions. Preliminary structural predictions suggest little association between the coding SNPs and key G6-PI catalytic residues or residues thought to be involved in the coordination of the G6-PI's substrate phosphate group. Thus, the significant polymorphism from its host orthologue and minimal intra-specific polymorphism suggest G6-PI remains a valid anti-coccidial drug target.

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