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The status of radiation protection in medicine in the Asia-Pacific region

Ng KH, Brady Z, Ng AH, Soh HS, Chou YH, Varma D

J Med Imaging Radiat Oncol, 2021 Jul;65(4):464-470.
PMID: 33606359 DOI: 10.1111/1754-9485.13165

More than half of the world's population live in Asia-Pacific. This region is culturally diverse, with significant disparities in terms of socio-economic status, provision of health care and access to advanced technology. The medical use of ionising radiation is increasing worldwide and similarly within the Asia-Pacific region. In this paper, we highlight the current status in usage of ionising radiation in medicine in the region, and review the legal framework, implementation and activities in radiation protection. Asia-Pacific countries are active in strengthening radiation protection by promoting education and training. Various projects and activities initiated by international organisations such as the IAEA, WHO and ICRP have provided stimulation in the region, but more work is needed to continue to improve protection practices.

Matched MeSH terms: Radiation Protection*
Exploring the thermoluminescence characteristics of smartphone screen safety glasses for retrospective dosimetry applications

Muslima U, Khandaker MU, Lam SE, Mat Nawi SN, Abdul Sani SF, Ung NM, et al.

Appl Radiat Isot, 2024 Oct;212:111457.
PMID: 39068692 DOI: 10.1016/j.apradiso.2024.111457

In clinical settings, standard dosimeters might miss radiation mishaps. Retrospective dosimeters could help to track personnel (such as patients and other staff who don't wear dosimeters) exceeding safe limits and assess long-term exposure trends. This study has investigated key thermoluminescence (TL) dosimetric characteristics, including the glow curve structure, dose-response, energy dependence, sensitivity and fading of various safety glasses that are used as screen protectors of smartphones subjected to photon irradiation. Among the studied glasses, the HD Anti-Peep safety glass for iPhone has been found to exhibit a linear dose-response with a regression coefficient of 99% within the dose range of 2-10 Gy. Moreover, all the safety glasses showed independence with respect to photon energy of 6 MV and 10 MV. The TL glow curves of the samples showed a broad glow peak between 125 °C and 325 °C at 10 Gy. The TL kinetic parameters of the safety glasses were also studied by analyzing the glow curves using the peak shape and initial rise method. The geometric factor (μg) is found to be within the range of 0.43-0.53, which indicates the suitability of applying Chen's general-order formula to calculate the kinetic parameters such as activation energy, frequency factor and trap lifetime. The activation energy (E) and frequency factor (s) are found in the range of 0.31-0.54 eV and 4.55 × 103 to 2.12 × 106 s-1 respectively obtained via the peak shape method. The relatively long trap lifetime and observed thermoluminescence features indicate that the HD Anti-Peep safety glass offers a better option to estimate dose retrospectively to ensure the safety of human health.

Matched MeSH terms: Radiation Protection/instrumentation; Radiation Protection/methods
Fulltext Tungsten-based material as promising new lead-free gamma radiation shielding material in nuclear medicine

Jamal AbuAlRoos N, Azman MN, Baharul Amin NA, Zainon R

Phys Med, 2020 Oct;78:48-57.
PMID: 32942196 DOI: 10.1016/j.ejmp.2020.08.017

PURPOSE: The main objective of this study was to evaluate the efficacy of tungsten carbide as new lead-free radiation shielding material in nuclear medicine by evaluating the attenuation properties.
MATERIALS AND METHODS: The elemental composition of tungsten carbide was analysed using Field-Emission Scanning Electron Microscopy (FESEM) with energy dispersive X-ray (EDX). The purity of tungsten carbide was 99.9%, APS: 40-50 µm. Three discs of tungsten carbide was fabricated with thickness of 0.1 cm, 0.5 cm and 1.0 cm. Three lead discs with similar thickness were used to compare the attenuation properties with tungsten carbide discs. Energy calibration of gamma spectroscopy was performed by using 123I, 133Ba, 152Eu, and 137Cs. Gamma radiation from these sources were irradiated on both materials at energies ranging from 0.160 MeV to 0.779 MeV. The experimental attenuation coefficients of lead and tungsten carbide were compared with theoretical attenuation coefficients of both materials from NIST database. The half value layer and mean free path of both materials were also evaluated in this study.
RESULTS: This study found that the peaks obtained from gamma spectroscopy have linear relationship with all energies used in this study. The relative differences between the measured and theoretical mass attenuation coefficients are within 0.19-5.11% for both materials. Tungsten carbide has low half value layer and mean free path compared to lead for all thickness at different energies.
CONCLUSION: This study shows that tungsten carbide has high potential to replace lead as new lead-free radiation shielding material in nuclear medicine.

Matched MeSH terms: Radiation Protection*
Letter to the Editor: Radiation Injuries: Reemphasizing the Usage of Radiation Protection Prosthesis

Kohli S, Bhatia S

Eur J Prosthodont Restor Dent, 2016 12;24(4):170.
PMID: 28510369 DOI: 10.1922/EJPRD_01650kohli01

Sir, I write in regard to Nayar S et al article 'The Effect of a Radiation Positioning Stent (RPS) in the Reduction of Radiation Dosage to the Opposing Jaw and Maintenance of Mouth opening after Radiation Therapy'. I wholeheartedly agree to that patients undergoing radio-therapy who had an Radiation Positioning Stent (RPS) would show a significant reduction in radiation dosage to the opposing jaw and maintained their mouth opening in the short-term. As we know that oral cancer has emerged to be one of most deadliest cancer nowadays.

Matched MeSH terms: Radiation Protection*
Knowledge and practices of radiation protection among Malaysian radiographers working in nuclear medicine: A preliminary study

Kasmat NK, Mohamad NS, Tajuddin MA, Mahmud MH

Med J Malaysia, 2024 Mar;79(Suppl 1):215-219.
PMID: 38555908

This study is aimed to determine knowledge and practices on radiation protection among radiographers in nuclear medicine department. A cross-sectional survey was conducted among radiographers in nuclear medicine departments in four health institutions in Malaysia. A set of questionnaires was distributed to 17 respondents using convenience sampling. Approximately more than 75% and 44% - 56% of the radiographers have good knowledge of radiation protection and frequent adherence to radiation protection practices, respectively. Levels of education and length of service were statistically correlated with radiation protection knowledge and practices attributes (p < 0.05), respectively. More training is necessary for knowledge and practice improvement.

Matched MeSH terms: Radiation Protection*
Characterisation of micro-sized and nano-sized tungsten oxide-epoxy composites for radiation shielding of diagnostic X-rays

Azman NZ, Siddiqui SA, Low IM

Mater Sci Eng C Mater Biol Appl, 2013 Dec 1;33(8):4952-7.
PMID: 24094209 DOI: 10.1016/j.msec.2013.08.023

Characteristics of X-ray transmissions were investigated for epoxy composites filled with 2-10 vol% WO3 loadings using synchrotron X-ray absorption spectroscopy (XAS) at 10-40 keV. The results obtained were used to determine the equivalent X-ray energies for the operating X-ray tube voltages of mammography and radiology machines. The results confirmed the superior attenuation ability of nano-sized WO3-epoxy composites in the energy range of 10-25 keV when compared to their micro-sized counterparts. However, at higher synchrotron radiation energies (i.e., 30-40 keV), the X-ray transmission characteristics were similar with no apparent size effect for both nano-sized and micro-sized WO3-epoxy composites. The equivalent X-ray energies for the operating X-ray tube voltages of the mammography unit (25-49 kV) were in the range of 15-25 keV. Similarly, for a radiology unit operating at 40-60 kV, the equivalent energy range was 25-40 keV, and for operating voltages greater than 60 kV (i.e., 70-100 kV), the equivalent energy was in excess of 40 keV. The mechanical properties of epoxy composites increased initially with an increase in the filler loading but a further increase in the WO3 loading resulted in deterioration of flexural strength, modulus and hardness.

Matched MeSH terms: Radiation Protection/instrumentation*
X-ray spectra and quality parameters from Monte Carlo simulation and analytical filters

Salehi Z, Ya Ali NK, Yusoff AL

Appl Radiat Isot, 2012 Nov;70(11):2586-9.
PMID: 22940409 DOI: 10.1016/j.apradiso.2011.12.007

BEAMnrc was used to derive the X-ray spectra, from which HVL and homogeneity coefficient were determined, for different kVp and filtration settings. Except for the peak at 61 keV, the spectra are in good agreement with the IPEM report 78 data for the case of filtered beams, whereas the unfiltered beams exhibit softer spectra. Although the current attenuation data deviates from the IPEM 78 data by ~±0.5%, this has negligible effects on the calculated HVL values.

Matched MeSH terms: Radiation Protection/methods
Biological polymeric shielding design for an X-ray laboratory using Monte Carlo codes

Tajudin SM, Tabbakh F

Radiol Phys Technol, 2019 Sep;12(3):299-304.
PMID: 31302871 DOI: 10.1007/s12194-019-00522-w

Photon irradiation facilities are often shielded using lead despite its toxicity and high cost. In this study, three Monte Carlo codes, EGS5, MCNPX, and Geant4, were utilized to investigate the efficiency of a relatively new polymeric base compound (CnH2n), as a radiation shielding material for photons with energies below 150 keV. The proposed compound with the densities of 6 and 8 g cm-3 were doped with the weight percentages of 8.0 and 15.0% gadolinium. The probabilities of photoelectric effect and Compton scattering were relatively equal at low photon energies, thus the shielding design was optimized using three Monte Carlo codes for the conformity of calculation results. Consequently, 8% Gd-doped polymer with thickness less than 2 cm and density of 6 g cm-3 was adequate for X-ray room shielding to attenuate more than 95% of the 150-keV incident photons. An average dose rate reduction of 88% can be achieved to ensure safety of the radiation area.

Matched MeSH terms: Radiation Protection/instrumentation*
Personnel exposure during cerebral angiography

Lam ES

Med J Malaysia, 1979 Dec;34(2):171-3.
PMID: 548723
Matched MeSH terms: Radiation Protection/methods
Ensuring radiation safety: Evaluating dose and compliance among medical staff at King Faisal Medical Complex, Saudi Arabia

Hassan WB, Osman H, Alosaimi M, AbuRkbah A, AlQurashi A, Elkhader BA, et al.

Appl Radiat Isot, 2024 Sep;211:111386.
PMID: 38870555 DOI: 10.1016/j.apradiso.2024.111386

BACKGROUND: Radiation is an integral part of routine medical practice, but it carries a risk to the health of medical staff. Hence, it should be assessed periodically. The study's goal was to quantify the levels of radiation exposure for medical staff at King Faisal Medical Complex (KFMC), Taif City Saudi Arabia, and to assess their radiation protective procedures in practice.
METHODS: The study looked at the thermoluminescence dosimeters (TLDs) records of 50 medical professionals who were exposed to radiation while working at KFMC from 2019 to 2020 in Taif city, Saudi Arabia. In Riyadh, radiation exposure is read from skin TLDs using Harshaw model 6600 plus detectors. The Excel software was utilized to process the obtained data for calculating effective doses. A questionnaire was also distributed to the medical staff to assess their radiation protection procedures. The Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) program version 23 was used to analyze the obtained data.
RESULTS: The mean annual effective doses of the medical staff in 2019 and 2020 were determined to be 1.14 mSv and 1.4645 mSv, respectively, with no significant difference in effective doses between males and females in either year. The socio-demographic features of the medical personnel were examined, and the findings revealed that the majority of participants were male radiological technologists. The rate of adherence to radiation protection techniques was 68%, with a normally distributed dispersal. The amount of adherence varied significantly depending on nationality, occupation, and academic qualification.
CONCLUSION: According to the research, the mean annual effective dosage for medical professionals at KFMC was significantly below the recommended level, indicating satisfactory compliance with the ALARA radiation safety concept.

Matched MeSH terms: Radiation Protection*
Fulltext Towards holistic radiation protection. lessons from the literatures

Zainul Ibrahim Bin Zainuddin

International Journal of Allied Health Sciences, 2018;2(3):517-527.
MyJurnal

The effects of radiation on man and his health had been noticed since the early years after the discovery of X-rays. These biological concerns were more commonly known as “radio-sensitiveness” in the early publications. Later, the term radiation protection was introduced to express the need for protective measures to be promoted, formulated, implemented, evaluated and sustained to reduce the biological effects associated with radiation exposure. The principles of radiation protection were then supported with the concepts of justification, ALARA and “Benefits against the risks”. But these could not ensure that the application of radiation protection has been optimized. Amidst the technological advancements associated with radiation based imaging modalities in healthcare for more than 120 years, those advancements have yet to be able reduce the impact of these modalities being a source of risks upon the more beneficial role as a
diagnostic tool. This paper reports a review on radiation protection from articles indexed in an online database. Considering that the titles of the articles contain the core subject matter that a publication carries, data were retrieved on those titles with the term “radiation protection”. Publications from 2008 to middle of November 2017 and aligned to Medicine and Health professions were included for further elaborations. The data were classified into four subject areas; education and training, administration and organization, practice and research. Discussions within each classification and their individual sub-classifications, supported by selected publications to the classification, highlight the importance of the particular subject area to the overall concept of radiation protection. Lessons learnt from the classifications could provide the necessary guidance on how one should adopt and adapt the concept of radiation protection holistically. The discussions that are presented are seen within the professional obligation in adhering to the principles of
radiation protection.

Matched MeSH terms: Radiation Protection
Fulltext Puspati triga reactor (RTP) radiation monitoring program

Ligam, Alfred Sanggau, Zarina Masood, Mohd Fairus Abdul Farid, Ahmad Nabil Abd Rahim, Nurhayati Ramli, Mohammad Suhaimi Kassim

Jurnal Sains Nuklear Malaysia, 2013;25(2):68-74.
MyJurnal

Radiation Monitoring System aims to limit the exposure dose to personnel to the lowest level
referring to the concept of ALARA (As Low As Reasonably Achievable). Atomic Energy Licensing
(Basic Safety Radiation Protection) Regulations 2010 is useful to control employee and public
radiation protection program and guideline. This paper discussed the methodology and
implementation of the radiation protection program at PUSPATI TRIGA Reactor (RTP) which is
implemented in Nuklear Malaysia, Complex Bangi.

Matched MeSH terms: Radiation Protection
Fulltext Radionuclide concentration of spent resins from puspati triga reactor coolant purification system

Muhamat Omar, Zalina Laili, Julia Abdul Karim, Zarina Masood, Nik Marzukee Nik Ibrahim, Mohd Abd Wahab Yusof

Jurnal Sains Nuklear Malaysia, 2012;24(2):14-18.
MyJurnal

A study to assess the concentration of radionuclides in spent resins of the PUSPATI TRIGA Mark II reactor coolant purification system has been carried out. Fresh spent resins collected and analysed in May 2010, after the changing of leaked heat exchanger in Sept. 2009 was found to contain 24Na, 122Sb, 51Cr, 124Sb, 58Co, 65Zn, 54Mn and 60Co. Old spent resins removed in 2001 and 2002 but analysed in 2010 indicated the presence of 60Co and 152Eu as radionuclides with half-lives of < 1 year might have already been decayed out. These results can be used to establish radionuclide inventory of the spent resins as part of radiation protection programme.

Matched MeSH terms: Radiation Protection
Potential factors that impact the radon level and the prediction of ambient dose equivalent rates of indoor microenvironments

Ali MYM, Hanafiah MM, Khan MF

Sci Total Environ, 2018 Jun 01;626:1-10.
PMID: 29331833 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2018.01.080

This study aimed to measure the equilibrium equivalent radon (EECRn) concentration in an old building (Building-1) and a new building (Building-2) with mechanical ventilation and a natural ventilation system, respectively. Both buildings were located at the campus of University Kebangsaan Malaysia. The concentration of indoor radon was measured at 25 sampling stations using a radon detector model DOSEman PRO. The sampling was conducted for 8 h to represent daily working hours. A correlation of the radon concentration was made with the annual inhalation dose of the occupants at the indoor stations. The equilibrium factor and the annual effective dose on the lung cancer risks of each occupant were calculated at each sampling station. The average equilibrium equivalent radon measured in Building-1 and Building-2 was 2.33 ± 0.99 and 3.17 ± 1.74 Bqm-3, respectively. The equilibrium factor for Building 1 ranged from 0.1053 to 0.2273, and it ranged from 0.1031 to 0.16 for Building 2. The average annual inhalation doses recorded at Building-1 and Building-2 were 0.014 ± 0.005 mSv y-1and 0.020 ± 0.013 mSv y-1, respectively. The annual effective dose for Building-1 was 0.034 ± 0.012 mSv y-1, and it was 0.048 ± 0.031 mSv y-1for Building-2. The values of equilibrium equivalent radon concentration for both buildings were below the standard recommended by the International Commission on Radiological Protection (ICRP). However, people may have different radon tolerance levels. Therefore, the inhalation of the radon concentration can pose a deleterious health effect for people in an indoor environment.

Matched MeSH terms: Radiation Protection
Reliability in individual monitoring service

Mod Ali N

Radiat Prot Dosimetry, 2011 Mar;144(1-4):90-4.
PMID: 21147789 DOI: 10.1093/rpd/ncq454

As a laboratory certified to ISO 9001:2008 and accredited to ISO/IEC 17025, the Secondary Standard Dosimetry Laboratory (SSDL)-Nuclear Malaysia has incorporated an overall comprehensive system for technical and quality management in promoting a reliable individual monitoring service (IMS). Faster identification and resolution of issues regarding dosemeter preparation and issuing of reports, personnel enhancement, improved customer satisfaction and overall efficiency of laboratory activities are all results of the implementation of an effective quality system. Review of these measures and responses to observed trends provide continuous improvement of the system. By having these mechanisms, reliability of the IMS can be assured in the promotion of safe behaviour at all levels of the workforce utilising ionising radiation facilities. Upgradation of in the reporting program through a web-based e-SSDL marks a major improvement in Nuclear Malaysia's IMS reliability on the whole. The system is a vital step in providing a user friendly and effective occupational exposure evaluation program in the country. It provides a higher level of confidence in the results generated for occupational dose monitoring of the IMS, thus, enhances the status of the radiation protection framework of the country.

Matched MeSH terms: Radiation Protection/methods; Radiation Protection/standards*
Fulltext Development of custom lead shield and strainer for targeted irradiation for mice in the gamma cell chamber

Hasan N, Sham NFR, Karim MKA, Fuad SBSA, Hasani NAH, Omar E, et al.

Sci Rep, 2021 Jul 15;11(1):14559.
PMID: 34267293 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-021-93964-5

We presented a development of a custom lead shield and mouse strainer for targeted irradiation from the gamma-cell chamber. This study was divided into two parts i.e., to (i) fabricate the shield and strainer from a lead (Pb) and (ii) optimize the irradiation to the mice-bearing tumour model with 2 and 8 Gy absorbed doses. The lead shielding was fabricated into a cuboid shape with a canal on the top and a hole on the vertical side for the beam path. Respective deliveries doses of 28 and 75 Gy from gamma-cell were used to achieve 2 and 8 Gy absorbed doses at the tumour sites.

Matched MeSH terms: Radiation Protection/instrumentation*; Radiation Protection/methods*
Fulltext Overuse, overdose, overdiagnosis… overreaction?

Ho E

Biomed Imaging Interv J, 2010 Jul-Sep;6(3):e8.
PMID: 21611049 DOI: 10.2349/biij.6.3.e8

When x-rays were first discovered, the harmful effects of radiation had to be manifest in the early users before they were known. Today, radiation protection and safety have been established and the effects of radiation, as well as its risks, are known. Even so, medical radiation, in particular the growth in the use of computed tomography (CT), has resulted in soaring radiation doses received by the population in general. Inappropriate use has resulted in overuse, overdose and, perhaps, overdiagnosis, especially when used in screening. In the quest to control and curb the use of procedures involving radiation, however, we must be careful not to provoke a pandemic of irrational fear of radiation. Overreaction to the overuse and overdose of radiation might deter patients from life-saving procedures.

Matched MeSH terms: Radiation Protection
Fulltext The chromosomal DNA damage in buccal mucosa cells among schools children in the vicinity of mobile base stations in Selangor

Raihanah Chokeli, Nur Azira Baharuddin, Vivien How, Nurul Syazani Yuswir, Shariza Afini Mohd Noor, Ho Yu Bin, et al.

Malaysian Journal of Medicine and Health Sciences, 2019;15(204):124-129.
MyJurnal

Introduction: The increased use of mobile phones has increased the mobile base stations (MBS) deployment. While understanding of radiation protection is growing among the public, questions regarding early-life exposure to ra- diofrequency radiation (RFR) from MBS in children are of importance as to whether it will raise the chances of developing chronic diseases during adulthood. Taking into account the sitting location of MBS, the purpose of this study is to evaluate the chromosomal DNA damage in buccal mucosal cells between school children exposed to RFR emitted from base station antennas. Method: This is a comparative cross-sectional study in which two group of school children were sampled i.e. exposed groups are children whose school located near MBS (200 meters); un- exposed groups are children whose school located distant far from the MBS (>200 meters). Digital RF Analyzer was used to measure RFR at the school surrounding. Buccal mucosa cells from the oral cavity were sampled to examine the level of micronuclei (MN) frequencies. Results: This study found that the densities of the RFR energy differed in range. Although all measurements showed the RFR reading below the acceptable exposure level, there were still sig- nificant variations at each location assessed. Statistically, the MN frequency is significantly different when compared to the exposed and non-exposed group. Conclusion: To understand the mechanism of health effects from exposure to low-level RFR emited from MBS, further study should consider environmental factors influencing MBS sitting on RFR emission, as well as examining the health effects into molecular levels.

Matched MeSH terms: Radiation Protection
Quantitative measurement of Occupational Safety and Health Management Systems performance

Aziz Basiran, Ismail Bahari

Journal of Occupational Safety and Health, 2012;9(2):31-38.
MyJurnal

Various types of Occupational Safety and Health Management Systems (OSH-MS) exist in the market. Basically, these systems have similar basic principles and even elements. However, the importance of these elements in terms of successful management of OSH differs according to the end-user. OSH Practitioners with different roles and responsibilities have different views on which element or elements contribute significantly to the overall success of OSH management. There are no standardization in terms quantifying the elements that qualifies an OSH-MS. A study was carried out to quantify the implementation of an OSH-MS through the determination of weighing factors for the different elements in an OSH-MS. Respondents for this study comprised of top safety and health management, safety and health officers (SHO) / radiation protection officers (RPO), DOSH officers, auditors and consultants who are very familiar with OSH-MS. Sample of this study was based on purposive sampling due to strict criteria and prerequisites to be met. Questionnaires were distributed to the identified organizations and personnel. Results from this study established that, auditor has the highest level of understanding of OSH-MS compared with top safety and health management, SHO / RPO, DOSH officers and OSH consultants. Among all the elements in the OSH-MS studied for their levels of importance in terms of the overall success of implementing an OSH-MS, OSH policy is the most critical element, followed by hazard identification, risk assessment and control, employee participation, responsibility and accountability and competence and training. The weighing factor for these top 5 elements are OSH policy (0.36); hazard identification, risk assessment and risk control (0.25); employee participation (0.15); responsibility and accountability (0.14); and competence and training (0.10). Application of the weighing factors of these elements allows the quantification of audit status (Audit Score) based on the equation: audit score = 0.36 [OSH Policy] + 0.25 [Hazard Identification, Risk Assessment and Risk Control] + 0.15 [Employee Participation] + 0.14 [Responsibility and Accountability] + 0.10 [Competence and Training]. Minimum tolerable target for each element of an OSH-MS was also determined. The minimum tolerable frequency of OSH policy is reviewed by top management is yearly; the minimum tolerable frequency of risk management is reviewed is yearly; the minimum tolerable percentage of employees who should be made known on relevant legal and other requirements is ≥90%; the minimum tolerable percentage of OSH objectives and programme(s) achieved / implemented is between 80 – 89%; the minimum tolerable percentage of money budgeted for OSH in a year compared to organization revenue is between 1 – 5%; the minimum tolerable number of hours for each employee needed to be trained on OSH per year is between 30 – 39 hours; the minimum tolerable percentage of employees who should be communicated on matters related to OSH is ≥90%; the minimum tolerable percentage of employees participation and involvement in hazard identification, risk assessment and determining controls is ≥90%; the minimum tolerable percentage of employees who should be involved in establishing OSH documents is

Matched MeSH terms: Radiation Protection
Fulltext Analysis of the concentrations of natural radionuclides in rivers in Kota Tinggi district, Malaysia

Ahmad Taufek Abdul Rahman, Ahmad Termizi Ramli, Abd. Khalik Wood

Journal of Nuclear and Related Technologies, 2004;2004(1):34-45.
MyJurnal

Environmental radiation protection program is important in the effort to limit radiation dose to the public to be as low as reasonably achievable. As water is an important factor of transfer of radionuclide to human, therefore it is important to measure natural radionuclide concentrations in rivers. 20 water samples were collected randomly from the main rivers in Kota Tinggi district. The water samples collected were analysed using ICP-MS technique to determine uranium, thorium and potassium concentration in river water. Radionuclide concentrations obtained were compared with the terrestrial gamma radiation dose rate measured in the area. Significance of the results obtained is discussed.

Matched MeSH terms: Radiation Protection

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