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Supercritical fluid reactive extraction of Jatropha curcas L. seeds with methanol: A novel biodiesel production method

Lim S, Hoong SS, Teong LK, Bhatia S

Bioresour Technol, 2010 Sep;101(18):7180-3.
PMID: 20395131 DOI: 10.1016/j.biortech.2010.03.134

The novel biodiesel production technology using supercritical reactive extraction from Jatropha curcas L. oil seeds in this study has a promising role to fill as a more cost-effective processing technology. Compared to traditional biodiesel production method, supercritical reactive extraction can successfully carry out the extraction of oil and subsequent esterification/transesterification process to fatty acid methyl esters (FAME) simultaneously in a relatively short total operating time (45-80 min). Particle size of the seeds (0.5-2.0 mm) and reaction temperature/pressure (200-300 degrees C) are two primary factors being investigated. With 300 degrees C reaction temperature, 240 MPa operating pressure, 10.0 ml/g methanol to solid ratio and 2.5 ml/g of n-hexane to seed ratio, optimum oil extraction efficiency and FAME yield can reach up to 105.3% v/v and 103.5% w/w, respectively which exceeded theoretical yield calculated based on n-hexane Soxhlet extraction of Jatropha oil seeds.
Fulltext Characterization of crude glycerol and glycerol pitch from palm-based residual biomass

Armylisas AHN, Hoong SS, Tuan Ismail TNM

Biomass Convers Biorefin, 2023 Mar 02.
PMID: 37363204 DOI: 10.1007/s13399-023-04003-4

Crude glycerol (CG) and glycerol pitch (GP) are highly alkaline residues from biodiesel and oleochemical plants, respectively, and have organic content which incurs high disposal cost and poses an environmental threat. Characterization of these residues for composition and properties could provide insight into their quality for proper disposal and can help the biodiesel industry to adopt more sustainable practices, such as reducing waste and improving the efficiency of the production process, hence minimizing the impact of the biodiesel supply chain to the environment. These data also allow the identification and exploration of new ways for their utilization and transformation into highly value-added products. In this study, we evaluated four CG samples (B, C, D, and E) and two GP samples (F and G) obtained from Malaysian palm oil refineries, and the results were compared with pure glycerol (A). Spectroscopic analysis was performed using FTIR, 1H-, and 13C-NMR. All samples had similar density to A (1.26 g/cm3), except for F (1.31 g/cm3), while the density for E and G could not be determined due to their physical states. The pH and viscosity largely varied in the range of 7.26-11.89 and 43-225 cSt, respectively. The glycerol content of CG (B, C, D, and E) was high and consistent (81.7-87.3%) whereas GP F and G had 71.5 and 63.9% glycerol content, respectively. Major contaminants in CG and GP were water and matter organic non-glycerol (MONG), respectively. The water, ash, soap, and salt content were considerably low, which varied from 3.4 to 14.1%, 3.9 to 13.0%, 0.1 to 5.7%, and 4.1 to 9.2% respectively. Thermal analysis of CG and GP exhibited four phases of decomposition attributed to the impurities compared to the single phase in A. All samples had calorific values lower than A (18.1 MJ/kg) between 9.0 and 17.7 MJ/kg. Based on the results, CG and GP have high glycerol content which reveals their potential to be used as feedstock in bioconversion and chemical or thermal treatment while impurities may be removed by pre-treatment if required. As palm oil is one of the main feedstocks for the oleochemical industry, this work underlines the importance of characterization of the residue generated to provide additional data and information on palm-based agricultural industry wastes, minimize the impact of palm oil supply chain on the environment, and explore its potential usage for value-addition.
SUPPLEMENTARY INFORMATION: The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s13399-023-04003-4.
Fulltext Synthesis of Transesterified Palm Olein-Based Polyol and Rigid Polyurethanes from this Polyol

Arniza MZ, Hoong SS, Idris Z, Yeong SK, Hassan HA, Din AK, et al.

J Am Oil Chem Soc, 2015;92:243-255.
PMID: 25684774

Transesterification of palm olein with glycerol can increase the functionality by introducing additional hydroxyl groups to the triglyceride structure, an advantage compared to using palm olein directly as feedstock for producing palm-based polyol. The objective of this study was to synthesize transesterified palm olein-based polyol via a three-step reaction: (1) transesterification of palm olein, (2) epoxidation and (3) epoxide ring opening. Transesterification of palm olein yielded approximately 78 % monoglyceride and has an hydroxyl value of approximately 164 mg KOH g(-1). The effect of formic acid and hydrogen peroxide concentrations on the epoxidation reaction was studied. The relationships between epoxide ring-opening reaction time and residual oxirane oxygen content and hydroxyl value were monitored. The synthesized transesterified palm olein-based polyol has hydroxyl value between 300 and 330 mg KOH g(-1) and average molecular weight between 1,000 and 1,100 Da. On the basis of the hydroxyl value and average molecular weight of the polyol, the transesterified palm olein-based polyol is suitable for producing rigid polyurethane foam, which can be designed to exhibit desirable properties. Rigid polyurethane foams were synthesized by substituting a portion of petroleum-based polyol with the transesterified palm olein-based polyol. It was observed that by increasing the amount of transesterified palm olein-based polyol, the core density and compressive strength were reduced but at the same time the insulation properties of the rigid polyurethane foam were improved.
Fulltext Preparation and Effect of Methyl-Oleate-Based Polyol on the Properties of Rigid Polyurethane Foams as Potential Thermal Insulation Material

Kamairudin N, Abdullah LC, Hoong SS, Biak DRA, Ariffin H

Polymers (Basel), 2023 Jul 13;15(14).
PMID: 37514418 DOI: 10.3390/polym15143028

Recently, most of the commercial polyols used in the production of rigid polyurethane foams (RPUFs) have been derived from petrochemicals. Therefore, the introduction of modified palm oil derivatives-based polyol as a renewable material into the formulation of RPUFs is the focus of this study. A palm oil derivative-namely, methyl oleate (MO)-was successfully modified through three steps of reactions: epoxidation reaction, ring-opened with glycerol, followed by amidation reaction to produce a bio-based polyol named alkanolamide polyol. Physicochemical properties of the alkanolamide polyol were analyzed. The hydroxyl value of alkanolamide polyol was 313 mg KOH/g, which is suitable for producing RPUFs. Therefore, RPUFs were produced by replacing petrochemical polyol with alkanolamide polyol. The effects of alkanolamide polyol on the physical, mechanical and thermal properties were evaluated. The results showed that the apparent density and compressive strength increased, and cell size decreased, upon introducing alkanolamide polyol. All the RPUFs exhibited low water absorption and excellent dimensional stability. The RPUFs made with increased amounts of alkanolamide polyol showed higher thermal conductivity. Nevertheless, the thermal conductivities of RPUFs made with alkanolamide polyol are still within the range for thermal insulating materials (<0.1 W/m.K). The thermal stability of RPUFs was improved with the addition of alkanolamide polyol into the system. Thus, the RPUFs made from alkanolamide polyol are potential candidates to be used as insulation for refrigerators or freezers.
Fulltext Optimisation of Epoxide Ring-Opening Reaction for the Synthesis of Bio-Polyol from Palm Oil Derivative Using Response Surface Methodology

Kamairudin N, Hoong SS, Abdullah LC, Ariffin H, Biak DRA

Molecules, 2021 Jan 27;26(3).
PMID: 33513686 DOI: 10.3390/molecules26030648

The development of bio-polyol from vegetable oil and its derivatives is gaining much interest from polyurethane industries and academia. In view of this, the availability of methyl oleate derived from palm oil, which is aimed at biodiesel production, provides an excellent feedstock to produce bio-polyol for polyurethane applications. In this recent study, response surface methodology (RSM) with a combination of central composite rotatable design (CCRD) was used to optimise the reaction parameters in order to obtain a maximised hydroxyl value (OHV). Three reaction parameters were selected, namely the mole ratio of epoxidised methyl oleate (EMO) to glycerol (1:5-1:10), the amount of catalyst loading (0.15-0.55%) and reaction temperature (90-150 °C) on a response variable as the hydroxyl value (OHV). The analysis of variance (ANOVA) indicated that the quadratic model was significant at 98% confidence level with (p-value > 0.0001) with an insignificant lack of fit and the regression coefficient (R2) was 0.9897. The optimum reaction conditions established by the predicted model were: 1:10 mole ratio of EMO to glycerol, 0.18% of catalyst and 120 °C reaction temperature, giving a hydroxyl value (OHV) of 306.190 mg KOH/g for the experimental value and 301.248 mg KOH/g for the predicted value. This result proves that the RSM model is capable of forecasting the relevant response. FTIR analysis was employed to monitor the changes of functional group for each synthesis and the confirmation of this finding was analysed by NMR analysis. The viscosity and average molecular weight (MW) were 513.48 mPa and 491 Da, respectively.
Efficient biodiesel production by sulfonated carbon catalyst derived from waste glycerine pitch via single-step carbonisation and sulfonation

Noor Armylisas AH, Hoong SS, Tuan Ismail TNM, Chan CH

Waste Manag, 2024 Aug 21;189:34-43.
PMID: 39173470 DOI: 10.1016/j.wasman.2024.08.011

Glycerine pitch is a highly alkaline residue from the oleochemical industry that contains glycerol and contaminants, such as water, soap, salt and ash. In this study, acidic heterogeneous glycerol-based carbon catalysts were synthesised for biodiesel production via single-step partial carbonisation and sulfonation using pure glycerol and glycerine pitch, producing products labelled as SGC and SGPC, respectively. Carbon materials were obtained by heating glycerol and concentrated sulfuric acid (1:3) at 200℃ for 1 h. The produced SGC and SGPC displayed high densities of sulfonic group (-SO3H), i.e. 1.49 and 1.00 mmol·g-1, respectively, alongside carboxylic (-COOH) and phenolic (-OH) acid. In the catalytic evaluation, excellent oleic acid conversions of 96.0 ± 0.4 % and 92.4 ± 0.5 % were achieved using SGC and SGPC, respectively, under optimised reaction conditions: 1:10 M ratio of oleic acid to methanol, 5 % (w/w) catalyst, 64℃ and 5 h. SGPC was found to be recyclable with 68.5 % conversion after the 6th cycle, which was attributed to the loss of -SO3H and catalyst deactivation by the deposition of oleic acid on its surface. Remarkably, despite the impurities present in the glycerine pitch, the obtained results demonstrated that the reactivity of SGPC is comparable to SGC and superior to that of commercial solid acid catalysts, which demonstrated that the presence of impurities appears to have minimal impact on the production of carbon materials and their properties.