Rambutan fruit is an exotic fruit and is getting popular worldwide. However, there is usually a glut of rambutan fruit
every year which leads to wastage, especially those from underutilized wild types. Transforming the fruit into various
products could reduce the wastage. Before doing so, the characteristics of the fruit should be available. Hence, the main
aim of this study was to investigate the physicochemical properties of various cultivars of rambutan. The results showed
that rambutan fruit comprises between 38.6-70.8% peel, 19.1-45.9% pulp and 8.3-20.3% seed. On average, it has a pH,
titratable acidity and total soluble solids of 4.18-5.44, 0.10-0.52% as citric acid and 13.78-16.67 °Brix, respectively.
The fruit contains high sugar contents, mainly contributed by sucrose (5.38-10.01%), fructose (1.75-3.18%) and glucose
(1.72-2.43%). Citric acid was the major organic acid found in the fruit and wild type, WT1, contained the highest level.
Some rambutan cultivars including Clone R3, WT1 and wild type, WT2, possess greater concentrations of ascorbic acid
compared to other tropical fruits. With these findings, various types of food products could be derived from rambutan
fruit based on their physicochemical properties.
Sweatings, the exudates that leach out from fermenting fruits during rambutan fruit fermentation are considered as
a waste by-product and are allowed to be drained off. This could lead to a pollution problem. Besides, it is a waste if
the sweatings are possible to be transformed into food products and ingredients. However, prior transformation, the
fundamental knowledge of the sweatings should be understood. Hence, the main aim of this study was to investigate
the physicochemical properties of sweatings as affected by fermentation time and turning intervals during natural
fermentation of rambutan fruits. In this study, peeled rambutan fruit was fermented for 8 days and turned. Different
batches of the fruits were turned every 24, 48 or 72 h and sweatings from the process were collected and analyzed.
The results showed that fermentation time significantly reduced (p<0.05) the yield, pH and sucrose content of the
sweatings by 79-84%, 32-33%, 76.5-80.8%, respectively. Fermentation time also significantly increased (p<0.05) the
titratable acidity, total soluble solids, fructose, glucose, total sugar, citric acid, lactic acid, acetic acid and ascorbic
acid contents of the sweatings by 5.6-6.0, 1.5-1.6, 2.4-2.6, 2.1-2.5, 1.0-1.1, 5.7-6.5, 2.4-2.6, 2.1-2.5 and 2.6-2.8 folds,
respectively. However, turning intervals did not significantly affect (p>0.05) the physicochemical properties of the
sweatings. High concentrations of sugars and organic acids allow the sweatings to have a balance of sweet and sour
taste and they are suitable to be used in the production of syrup, soft drinks, jam, jelly, marmalade and vinegar.
Introduction: The electronic cigarette (EC) usage has raised public health concerns; whether its advantages to smok- ers as a potential smoking cessation aid have outweighed its negative health impacts among EC users. This study aims to estimate health risks associated with chemical exposures to nicotine, propylene glycol (PG) and selected To- bacco-Specific Nitrosamines (TSNAs) namely 4-(methylnitrosamino)-1-(3-pyridyl)-1-butanone (NNK) and N’-nitro- sonornicotine (NNN) in e-liquids locally-manufactured in Malaysia. Methods: The health risk assessment (HRA) was performed using established guideline by the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). The average daily dose (ADD) and lifetime average daily dose (LADD) were calculated using previously published data on chemical concentration of selected compounds and local EC usage topography data. Next, the non-carcinogenic risk (nicotine and PG) and carcinogenic risk (NNK and NNN) were calculated and denoted as total hazard quotient (HQT) and total lifetime cancer risk (LCRT) value, respectively. Results: For non-carcinogenic risk, the mean of HQT was 78.9 which falls un- der “unacceptable” risk as demonstrated by HQT value of more than 1. While for carcinogenic risk, the mean of total LCRT value was 1.54E-04 which may place EC users at risk of developing cancer resulted from exposure to selected TSNAs. Conclusion: Comprehensive HRA using currently available data of local EC usage topography and chemical evaluation of Malaysian-made e-liquids have revealed that the exposure to nicotine, PG and selected TSNAs are expected to be a significant health concern for local EC users. This finding supports the local health authority to issue a stringent health policy in considering EC as a tool for smoking cessation among heavy smokers.
Electronic Cigarette (EC) usage has been gaining acceptance in Malaysia despite its lack of analytical evidence on the chemical constituents of its liquid formulations. This study aims to evaluate the chemical concentrations of nicotine, propylene glycol (PG) and selected Tobacco-Specific Nitrosamines (TSNAs); 4-(methylnitrosamino)-1-(3-pyridyl)-1-butanone (NNK) and N’-nitrosonornicotine (NNN) in e-liquids locally sourced from the Malaysian market. Methods: A total of 17 e-liquids from a variety of flavours and brands were purchased from local EC retailers in Klang Valley, Malaysia. Nicotine and PG concentrations were assessed using Gas Chromatography-Flame Ionization Detector (GC-FID) while NNK and NNN were quantified using Liquid Chromatography-Tandem Mass Spectrometry (LC-MS/MS). The concentrations of nicotine and PG (mg/mL) were described in comparison with the levels indicated on the labels when present while levels of TSNAs were descriptively explained. Results: Nicotine was detected in all e-liquid samples, despite several samples being declared as nicotine-free. The average (standard deviation) level of nicotine, PG, NNN and NNK were 3.26 (1.04) mg/mL, 484.10 (98.24) mg/mL, 0.383(0.288) μg/L and 0.086 (0.057) μg/L, respectively. Labelling discrepancies (when indicated on the label) of nicotine and PG were between the range of 27%-73% and 3%-63%, respectively. Conclusion: The concentrations of nicotine and PG in local e-liquids were varied. There were evidences of labelling discrepancy in that local e-liquids. TSNAs were detected in all samples of e-liquids. This study brought forth strong evidence on the need for the implementation of regulation on e-liquid manufacturing and sales, particularly on the accuracy of labelling and licensing to protect the public health.